{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T02:25:52Z","timestamp":1788315952861,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]],"date-time":"2025-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755734400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The early determination of the type and severity of stresses caused by nutrient deficiency is necessary for taking timely measures and preventing a remarkable yield reduction. This study is an effort to investigate the performance of a machine learning-based model that identifies the type and severity of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur in rice plants by using the plant microRNA data as model inputs. The concentration of 14 microRNA compounds in plants exposed to nutrient deficiency was measured using an electrochemical biosensor based on the peak currents produced during the probe\u2013target microRNA hybridization. Subsequently, several machine learning models were utilized to predict the type and severity of stress. According to the results, the biosensor used in this work exerted promising analytical performance, including linear range (10\u221219 to 10\u221211 M), limit of detection (3 \u00d7 10\u221221 M), and reproducibility during microRNA measurement in total RNA extracted from rice plant samples. Among the microRNAs studied, miRNA167, miRNA162, miRNA169, and miRNA395 exerted the largest contribution in predicting the nutrient deficiency levels based on feature selection methods. Using these four microRNAs as model inputs, the random forest with hyperparameters optimized by the genetic algorithm was capable of detecting the type of nutrient deficiency with an average accuracy, precision, and recall of 0.86, 0.94, and 0.87, respectively, seven days after the application of the nutrient treatment. Within this period, the optimized machine was able to detect the level of deficiency with average MSE and R2 of 0.010 and 0.92, respectively. Combining the findings of this study and the results we reported earlier on determining the occurrence of salinity, drought, and heat in rice plants using microRNA biosensors can be useful to develop smart biosensing platforms for efficient plant health monitoring systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25165189","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]],"date-time":"2025-08-21T08:02:44Z","timestamp":1755763364000},"page":"5189","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Detecting the Type and Severity of Mineral Nutrient Deficiency in Rice Plants Based on an Intelligent microRNA Biosensing Platform"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Zhongxu","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information and Electrical Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5035-7727","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keyvan","family":"Asefpour Vakilian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosystems Engineering, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan 4913815739, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plaphy.2019.10.042","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles-based biosensor can detect drought stress in tomato by ultrasensitive and specific determination of miRNAs","volume":"145","year":"2019","journal-title":"Plant Physiol. 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