{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T09:02:12Z","timestamp":1772182932676,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755820800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the IT sector, the relevance of looking at security from many different angles and the inclusion of different areas is already known and understood. This approach is much less pronounced in the area of cyber physical systems and not present at all in the area of building automation. Increasing interconnectivity, undefined responsibilities, connections between secured and unsecured areas, and a lack of understanding of security among decision-makers pose a particular threat. This systematic review demonstrates a paucity of literature addressing real-world scenarios, asymmetric\/hybrid threats, or composite vulnerabilities. In particular, the attack surface is significantly increased by the deployment of smart sensors and actuators in unprotected areas. Furthermore, a range of additional hybrid threats are cited, with practical examples being provided that have hitherto gone unnoticed in the extant literature. It will be shown whether solutions are available in neighboring areas and whether these can be transferred to building automation to increase the security of the entire system. Consequently, subsequent studies can be developed to create more accurate behavioral models, enabling more rapid and effective analysis of potential attacks to building automation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25175218","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T11:50:31Z","timestamp":1755863431000},"page":"5218","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Composite Vulnerabilities and Hybrid Threats for Smart Sensors and Field Busses in Building Automation: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-2958-0911","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Gerhalter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Communication and Network (AVCN) Research Institute, University of the West of Scotland (UWS), High St, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1789-893X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keshav","family":"Dahal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Communication and Network (AVCN) Research Institute, University of the West of Scotland (UWS), High St, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2014.12.006","article-title":"A framework for knowledge discovery in massive building automation data and its application in building diagnostics","volume":"50","author":"Fan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Autom. 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