{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T10:39:05Z","timestamp":1760524745949,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]],"date-time":"2025-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756857600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Oklahoma State University College of Arts and Sciences Research Program"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dissipative sensing in a whispering-gallery-mode (WGM) microresonator entails monitoring changes in WGM throughput dip depth or linewidth due to analyte absorption. In our earlier work, we showed that dip depth sensitivity can be two orders of magnitude greater than linewidth sensitivity for sensing the broadband absorption of a dye in methanol. Here we experimentally demonstrate enhancement of absorption sensing of methane. Its narrowband absorption lines (a few GHz linewidth) necessitate strain tuning of the WGM of our hollow bottle resonator (HBR) to bring the WGM into resonance with the absorption line. Three asymmetric tapered fibers with different nonadiabaticities were designed to excite multiple fiber modes that couple into the WGM to interact with methane inside the HBR via the internal evanescent field. Measurements were carried out for both pure and trace (in 1 atm of air) methane at 1654 and 1651 nm. Enhancement factors as large as 141 were found; the experimental results agree with theoretical calculations and with the predictions of a limiting-case model. Effective absorption path lengths as large as 273 cm, more than ten thousand times the HBR diameter, were achieved for trace methane sensing, with detection limits estimated to be in the hundreds of ppm.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25175458","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]],"date-time":"2025-09-03T08:04:15Z","timestamp":1756886655000},"page":"5458","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Multimode Input Enhancement of Absorption Sensing of Methane in a Hollow Bottle Microresonator"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Mohmad","family":"Junaid Ul Haq","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078-3072, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6598-4360","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A. T.","family":"Rosenberger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078-3072, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1039\/C6AN02693A","article-title":"Hybrid plasmonic\u2013photonic whispering gallery mode resonators for sensing: A critical review","volume":"142","author":"Bozzola","year":"2017","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10089","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3119547","article-title":"Silicon Photonic Micro-Ring Resonators for Chemical and Biological Sensing: A Tutorial","volume":"22","author":"Steglich","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1364\/AOP.7.000168","article-title":"Whispering gallery mode sensors","volume":"7","author":"Foreman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1140\/epjst\/e2014-02236-5","article-title":"Hollow core, whispering gallery resonator sensors","volume":"223","author":"Ward","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. Spec. Top."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matt.2020.07.008","article-title":"Whispering Gallery Sensors","volume":"3","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Matter"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12959","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.15.012959","article-title":"Analysis of whispering-gallery microcavity-enhanced chemical absorption sensors","volume":"15","author":"Rosenberger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Opt. 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Design of Asymmetrically Tapered Fibers for Multimode Input to Enable Dissipative Sensing Enhancement in Microresonators, Under review.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.3054197"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14668","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.554693","article-title":"Ultra-sensitive active whispering gallery mode sensor in an optofluidic microcapillary with Vernier effect of coupled modes","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Opt. 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