{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T00:41:25Z","timestamp":1791420085776,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]],"date-time":"2025-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756857600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gallstone disease affects approximately 10\u201320% of the global adult population, with early diagnosis being essential for effective treatment and management. While image-based machine learning (ML) models have shown high accuracy in gallstone detection, tabular data approaches remain less explored. In this study, we have proposed a Random Forest (RF) classifier optimized using the Sand Cat Swarm Optimization (SCSO) algorithm for gallstone prediction based on a tabular dataset. Our experiments have been conducted across four frameworks: only RF without cross-validation (CV), RF with CV, RF-SCSO without CV, and RF-SCSO with CV. Only RF without CV model has achieved 81.25%, 79.07%, 85%, and 73.91% accuracy, F-score, precision, and recall, respectively, using all 38 features, while the RF with CV has obtained a 10-fold cross-validation accuracy of 78.42% using the same feature set. With SCSO-based feature reduction, the RF-SCSO without and with CV models have delivered a comparable accuracy of 79.17% and 78.32%, respectively, using only 13 features, indicating effective dimensionality reduction. SHAP analysis has identified CRP, Vitamin D, and AAST as the most influential features, and DiCE has further illustrated the model\u2019s behavior by highlighting corrective counterfactuals for misclassified instances. These findings demonstrate the potential of interpretable, feature-optimized ML models for gallstone diagnosis using structured clinical data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25175489","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]],"date-time":"2025-09-03T15:15:57Z","timestamp":1756912557000},"page":"5489","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Gallstone Classification Using Random Forest Optimized by Sand Cat Swarm Optimization Algorithm with SHAP and DiCE-Based Interpretability"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-9502-2152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Proshenjit","family":"Sarker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Electronics and Communication Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna 9208, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1178-9356","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jun-Jiat","family":"Tiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Wireless Technology, CoE for Intelligent Network, Faculty of Artificial Intelligence & Engineering, Multimedia University, Persiaran Multimedia, Cyberjaya 63100, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2391-5767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdullah-Al","family":"Nahid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electronics and Communication Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna 9208, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16024","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2016.24","article-title":"Gallstones","volume":"2","author":"Lammert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. 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