{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T08:56:08Z","timestamp":1773392168237,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,19]],"date-time":"2025-09-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758240000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bilateral teleoperation combines the agility of robotic manipulators with the ability to perform complex contact tasks guided by human expertise, thereby fulfilling a pivotal function in environments beyond human access. However, due to the limited workspace of existing master robots necessitating frequent mapping mode switches, coupled with the pronounced heterogeneity and asymmetry between the workspaces of the master and slave systems, achieving teleoperation of the mobile manipulator remains challenging. In this study, we innovatively introduced a 7 DOFs upper limb exoskeleton as the master control device, rigorously designed to align with the motion coordination of the human arm. Regarding teleoperation mapping, a hybrid heterogeneous teleoperation control framework with a variable mapping scheme, designed for an aerial manipulator performing physical operations, is proposed. The system incorporates mode switching driven by the operator\u2019s hand gestures, seamlessly and intuitively integrating the advantages of position control and rate control modalities to enable adaptive transitions adaptable to diverse task requirements. Comparative teleoperation experiments were conducted using a fully actuated aerial equipped with a compliant 3D end-effector performing physical aerial writing tasks. The mode-switching algorithm was effectively validated in experiments, demonstrating no instability during transitions and achieving a position tracking RMSE of 7.7% and 5.2% in the X,Y-axis, respectively. This approach holds significant potential for future applications in UAM inspection and physical operational scenarios.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25185844","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,19]],"date-time":"2025-09-19T08:11:01Z","timestamp":1758269461000},"page":"5844","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Bilateral Teleoperation of Aerial Manipulator with Hybrid Mapping Framework for Physical Interaction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Lingda","family":"Meng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering & Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yongfeng","family":"Rong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1737-1030","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wusheng","family":"Chou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering & Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1706","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2023.3236952","article-title":"Teleoperation of Humanoid Robots: A Survey","volume":"39","author":"Darvish","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1017\/S026357472000048X","article-title":"Survey on Aerial Manipulator: System, Modeling, and Control\u2014CORRIGENDUM","volume":"38","author":"Meng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Robotica"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S., Seo, H., and Kim, H.J. (2015, January 26\u201330). Operating an unknown drawer using an aerial manipulator. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2015.7139968"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, D., Seo, H., Kim, D., and Kim, H.J. (August, January 31). Aerial manipulation using model predictive control for opening a hinged door. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA40945.2020.9197524"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, X., He, Y., and Han, J. (2019, January 4\u20138). Design and implementation of a contact aerial manipulator system for glass-wall inspection tasks. Proceedings of the IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Macau, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS40897.2019.8968123"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tzoumanikas, D., Graule, F., Yan, Q., Shah, D., Popovic, M., and Leutenegger, S. (2020). Aerial manipulation using hybrid force and position nmpc applied to aerial writing. Robotics: Science and Systems(RSS). arXiv.","DOI":"10.15607\/RSS.2020.XVI.046"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2018.2852789","article-title":"The AEROARMS Project: Aerial Robots with Advanced Manipulation Capabilities for Inspection and Maintenance","volume":"25","author":"Ollero","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103973","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2021.103973","article-title":"Teleoperation Methods and Enhancement Techniques for Mobile Robots: A Comprehensive Survey","volume":"150","author":"Moniruzzaman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Robot. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2013.2281563","article-title":"On Bilateral Teleoperation of Aerial Robots","volume":"30","author":"Mersha","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allenspach, M., Lawrance, N., Tognon, M., and Siegwart, R. (2022, January 23\u201327). Towards 6DoF bilateral teleoperation of an omnidirectional aerial vehicle for aerial physical interaction. Proceedings of the 2022 International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Philadelphia, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA46639.2022.9812346"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Byun, J., Eom, D., and Kim, H.J. (2024, January 4\u20137). Haptic-based bilateral teleoperation of aerial manipulator for extracting wedged object with compensation of human reaction time. Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS), Chania, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICUAS60882.2024.10557012"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pepe, A., Chiaravalli, D., and Melchiorri, C. (2016, January 9\u201314). A Hybrid teleoperation control scheme for a single-arm mobile manipulator with omnidirectional wheels. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Daejeon, Republic of Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2016.7759236"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1109\/OJIES.2024.3419422","article-title":"Delayed Bilateral Teleoperation of Mobile Manipulators with Hybrid Mapping","volume":"5","author":"Chicaiza","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Open J. Ind. Electron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7918","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2981091","article-title":"A Universal Self-Adaption Workspace Mapping Method for Human\u2013Robot Interaction Using Kinect Sensor Data","volume":"20","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15356","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2809860","article-title":"Modular Development of Master-Slave Asymmetric Teleoperation Systems with a Novel Workspace Mapping Algorithm","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R\u00fcesch, A., Mersha, A.Y., Stramigioli, S., and Carloni, R. (2012, January 14\u201318). Kinetic scrolling-based position mapping for haptic teleoperation of unmanned aerial vehicles. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Saint Paul, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2012.6224744"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2021.3084395","article-title":"Past, Present, and Future of Aerial Robotic Manipulators","volume":"38","author":"Ollero","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364918802006","article-title":"Shared Planning and Control for Mobile Robots with Integral Haptic Feedback","volume":"37","author":"Masone","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macchini, M., Havy, T., Weber, A., Schiano, F., and Floreano, D. (August, January 31). Hand-worn haptic interface for drone teleoperation. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA40945.2020.9196664"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-022-01651-y","article-title":"Evaluation of Path Planning with Force Feedback for Bilateral Teleoperation of Unmanned Rotorcraft Systems","volume":"105","author":"Chicaiza","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moortgat-Pick, A.\/, Adamczyk, A., Tomi\u0107, T., and Haddadin, S. (2020, January 25\u201329). Feeling the true force in haptic telepresence for flying robots. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS45743.2020.9341778"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aleotti, J., Micconi, G., Caselli, S., Benassi, G., Zambelli, N., Bettelli, M., and Zappettini, A. (2017). Detection of Nuclear Sources by UAV Teleoperation Using a Visuo-Haptic Augmented Reality Interface. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17102234"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Schill, F., Hou, X., and Mahony, R. (2010, January 1\u20133). Admittance mode framework for haptic teleoperation of hovering vehicles with unlimited workspace. Proceedings of the Australasian Conference on Robotics and Automation (ACRA), Brisbane, Australia."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gioioso, G., Mohammadi, M., Franchi, A., and Prattichizzo, D. (2015, January 26\u201330). A force-based bilateral teleoperation framework for aerial robots in contact with the environment. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2015.7139018"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2337","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2018.2885642","article-title":"Haptic and Virtual Reality Based Shared Control for MAV","volume":"55","author":"Islam","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammadi, M., Franchi, A., Barcelli, D., and Prattichizzo, D. (2016, January 9\u201314). Cooperative aerial tele-manipulation with haptic feedback. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Daejeon, Republic of Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2016.7759747"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2022.3206663","article-title":"An Efficient RGB-D Hand Gesture Detection Framework for Dexterous Robot Hand-Arm Teleoperation System","volume":"53","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Hum. Mach. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2019.2955964","article-title":"Fully Actuated Multirotor UAVs: A Literature Review","volume":"27","author":"Rashad","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-021-01450-x","article-title":"Robust Adaptive Control for a Novel Fully-Actuated Octocopter UAV with Wind Disturbance","volume":"103","author":"Shu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"3dsystems (2025, August 16). Touch\u2014Haptic Device. Available online: https:\/\/www.3dsystems.com\/haptics-devices\/touch."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"forcedimension (2025, August 16). Sigma.7. Available online: https:\/\/www.forcedimension.com\/products\/sigma."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s41315-024-00351-0","article-title":"A human\u2013robot interaction control strategy for Teleoperation Robot System Under Multi-Scenario Applications","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"071001","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4063368","article-title":"Design and Control of An Aerial Manipulator with Invariant Center of Gravity for Physical Interaction","volume":"16","author":"Rong","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mech. Robot."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2020.104721","article-title":"MUDE-Based Control of Quadrotor for Accurate Attitude Tracking","volume":"108","author":"Qi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, J., and Yang, G.-H. (2022). Improving Teleoperator Efficiency Using Position\u2013Rate Hybrid Controllers and Task Decomposition. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12199672"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4149","DOI":"10.1002\/rnc.6005","article-title":"Robust Fault-Tolerant Motion\/Force Control of a Fully-Actuated Hexarotor Using Adaptive Sliding Mode Impedance Control","volume":"32","author":"Rong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Robust Nonlinear Control"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1109\/70.258054","article-title":"Stability and Transparency in Bilateral Teleoperation","volume":"9","author":"Lawrence","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.2478\/amcs-2019-0050","article-title":"Stability and Transparency of Delayed Bilateral Teleoperation with Haptic Feedback","volume":"29","author":"Estrada","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Math. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2024.3359243","article-title":"Design and Development of a Teleoperated Telepresence Robot System with High-Fidelity Haptic Feedback Assistance","volume":"22","author":"Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1109\/70.880801","article-title":"Human-Machine Cooperative Telemanipulation with Motion and Force Scaling Using Task-Oriented Virtual Tool Dynamics","volume":"16","author":"Itoh","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5016911","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2025.3551141","article-title":"Wheeled Visuotactile Sensing for Aerial Physical Interaction with Surfaces of Unknown Curvature","volume":"74","author":"Rong","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/25\/18\/5844\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:48:43Z","timestamp":1760035723000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/25\/18\/5844"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,19]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s25185844"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s25185844","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,19]]}}}