{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T17:25:21Z","timestamp":1792689921269,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]],"date-time":"2025-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758844800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University","award":["IMSIU-DDRSP2501"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IMSIU-DDRSP2501"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Arrhythmias are a common and potentially life-threatening category of cardiac disorders, making accurate and early detection crucial for improving clinical outcomes. Electrocardiograms are widely used to monitor heart rhythms, yet their manual interpretation remains prone to inconsistencies due to the complexity of the signals. This research investigates the effectiveness of machine learning and deep learning techniques for automated arrhythmia classification using ECG signals from the MIT-BIH dataset. We compared Gradient Boosting Machine (GBM) and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) as traditional machine learning models with a hybrid deep learning model combining one-dimensional convolutional neural networks (1D-CNNs) and long short-term memory (LSTM) networks. Furthermore, the Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) was utilized to automatically optimize the hyperparameters of the 1D-CNN-LSTM model, enhancing its performance. Experimental results show that the proposed 1D-CNN-LSTM model achieved the highest accuracy of 97%, outperforming both classical machine learning and other deep learning baselines. The classification report and confusion matrix confirm the model\u2019s robustness in identifying various arrhythmia types. These findings emphasize the possible benefits of integrating metaheuristic optimization with hybrid deep learning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25195976","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]],"date-time":"2025-09-26T10:39:37Z","timestamp":1758883177000},"page":"5976","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Detection and Classification of Unhealthy Heartbeats Using Deep Learning Techniques"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9140-4339","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdullah M.","family":"Albarrak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science Department, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11432, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raneem","family":"Alharbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science Department, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11432, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3111-1788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ibrahim A.","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science Department, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11432, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1873","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/36\/9\/1873","article-title":"Heart rate dynamics distinguish among atrial fibrillation, normal sinus rhythm and sinus rhythm with frequent ectopy","volume":"36","author":"Carrara","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol. 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