{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]],"date-time":"2025-10-23T04:19:11Z","timestamp":1761193151967,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761004800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004826","name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["L248078","L242044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["L248078","L242044"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Beijing New-star Plan of Science and Technology","award":["20230484405"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20230484405"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Magnetically controlled spinal growing rods, used for treating early-onset scoliosis (EOS), face a critical clinical limitation: insufficient distraction force. Compounding this issue is the inherent inability to directly monitor the mechanical output of such implants in vivo, which challenges their safety and efficacy. To overcome these limitations, optimizing the rotor\u2019s maximum torque is essential. Furthermore, defining the \u201ccontinuous rotation domain\u201d establishes a vital safety boundary for stable operation, preventing loss of synchronization and loss of control, thus safeguarding the efficacy of future clinical control strategies. In this study, a transient finite element magnetic field simulation model of a circumferentially distributed permanent magnet\u2013rotor system was established using ANSYS Maxwell (2024). The effects of the clamp angle between the driving magnets and the rotor, the number of pole pairs, the rotor\u2019s outer diameter, and the rotational speed of the driving magnets on the rotor\u2019s maximum torque were systematically analyzed, and the optimized continuous rotation domain of the rotor was determined. The results indicated that when the clamp angle was set at 120\u00b0, the number of pole pairs was one, the rotor outer diameter was 8 mm, the rotor achieved its maximum torque and exhibited the largest continuous rotation domain, while the rotational speed of the driving magnets had no effect on maximum torque. Following optimization, the maximum torque of the simulation increased by 201% compared with the pre-optimization condition, and the continuous rotation domain was significantly enlarged. To validate the simulation, a rotor torque measurement setup incorporating a torque sensor was constructed. Experimental results showed that the maximum torque improved from 30 N\u00b7mm before optimization to 90 N\u00b7mm after optimization, while the driving magnets maintained stable rotation throughout the process. Furthermore, a spinal growing rod test platform equipped with a pressure sensor was developed to evaluate actuator performance and measure the maximum distraction force. The optimized growing rod achieved a peak distraction force of 413 N, nearly double that of the commercial MAGEC system, which reached only 208 N. The simulation and experimental methodologies established in this study not only optimizes the device\u2019s performance but also provides a viable pathway for in vivo performance prediction and monitoring, addressing a critical need in smart implantable technology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25206497","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T14:53:19Z","timestamp":1761058399000},"page":"6497","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Enhancing Torque Output for a Magnetic Actuation System for Robotic Spinal Distraction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Yumei","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of High Dynamic Navigation Technology, Beijing Information Science Technology University, Beijing 100096, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Modern Measurement Control Technology, Ministry of Education, Beijing Information Science Technology University, Beijing 100096, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zikang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of High Dynamic Navigation Technology, Beijing Information Science Technology University, Beijing 100096, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Modern Measurement Control Technology, Ministry of Education, Beijing Information Science Technology University, Beijing 100096, China"},{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ding","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of High Dynamic Navigation Technology, Beijing Information Science Technology University, Beijing 100096, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Modern Measurement Control Technology, Ministry of Education, Beijing Information Science Technology University, Beijing 100096, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tairan","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Transformative High-End Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yunzhi","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Transformative High-End Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gang","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Orthopedics, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Beijing 100035, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1990-3037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhenguo","family":"Nie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Transformative High-End Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fangyuan","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hand and Foot Surgery, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine Third Affiliated Hospital, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Chinese Orthopaedic and Sports Rehabilitation Artificial Intelligent, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100029, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cruz-Medel, I., Rodrigues-De-Souza, D.P., and Alburquerque-Send\u00edn, F. 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