{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T16:10:34Z","timestamp":1791303034820,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]],"date-time":"2025-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761436800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Scientific Research Funding Project of Westlake University","award":["WU2024A001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WU2024A001"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Funding Project of Westlake University","award":["WU2024A033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WU2024A033"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The miniaturization of ocean parameter monitors is critical for environmental monitoring and oceanographic research. In recent years, rapid developments in data processing, artificial intelligence, micro-nano manufacturing and advanced materials have significantly improved sensing accuracy while reducing device size. The detection of key ocean parameters such as temperature, salinity, pressure, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, nutrients, chlorophyll and so on is facilitated by these innovations. Among these emerging technologies, microfluidics and optofluidics have attracted large attention in the fields of biomedicine and environmental monitoring. These platforms have the advantages of high sensitivity, low power consumption and easy integration. Real-time and on-site monitoring can be achieved by them. Optofluidic technology shows great prospects for ocean sensing applications. Recent advances in optofluidic ocean sensors for the measurement of chemical parameters and their future potential are highlighted in this review. Ultimately, it presents the key role of optofluidic systems in realizing compact high-performance ocean parameter sensors. This plays an important role in paving the way for their integration into micro robots and the fourth generation of submersibles based on live fish.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25216591","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T05:48:46Z","timestamp":1761716926000},"page":"6591","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Miniaturization of Ocean Sensors Based on Optofluidic Technology: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Wennan","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4784-0782","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kai","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Coastal Environment and Resources of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China"},{"name":"Institute of Advanced Technology, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou 310024, China"},{"name":"Department of Electronic and Information Engineering, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China"},{"name":"Zhejiang Key Laboratory of 3D Micro\/Nano Fabrication and Characterization, Westlake Institute for Optoelectronics, Fuyang, Hangzhou 311421, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1871-2658","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Weicheng","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Coastal Environment and Resources of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China"},{"name":"Department of Electronic and Information Engineering, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310030, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-marine-041911-111611","article-title":"Climate Change Impacts on Marine Ecosystems","volume":"4","author":"Doney","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.5334\/aogh.2831","article-title":"Human Health and Ocean Pollution","volume":"86","author":"Landrigan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cooper, J.A. (2025). Immortalising the contents and historical legacy of Sir John Murray\u2019s collection from the HMS Challenger. Hist. Biol., 1\u20133.","DOI":"10.1080\/08912963.2025.2516358"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rozwadowski, H.M. (2005). Fathoming the Ocean: The Discovery and Exploration of the Deep Sea, Harvard University Press.","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674042940"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/678621","article-title":"The Development of SONAR as a Tool in Marine Biological Research in the Twentieth Century","volume":"2013","author":"Fornshell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Menard, H.W. (2014). The Ocean of Truth: A Personal History of Global Tectonics, Princeton University Press."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1126\/science.204.4400.1405","article-title":"Seasat Mission Overview","volume":"204","author":"Born","year":"1979","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1029\/01EO00233","article-title":"Satellite Altimetry and Earth Sciences: A Handbook of Techniques and Applications","volume":"82","author":"Coleman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2009.36","article-title":"The Argo Program: Observing the Global Oceans with Profiling Floats","volume":"22","author":"Roemmich","year":"2009","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanhua, T., McCurdy, A., Fischer, A., Appeltans, W., Bax, N., Currie, K., DeYoung, B., Dunn, D., Heslop, E., and Glover, L.K. (2019). What We Have Learned From the Framework for Ocean Observing: Evolution of the Global Ocean Observing System. Front. Mar. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00471"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amani, M., Mehravar, S., Asiyabi, R.M., Moghimi, A., Ghorbanian, A., Ahmadi, S.A., Ebrahimy, H., Moghaddam, S.H.A., Naboureh, A., and Ranjgar, B. (2022). Ocean Remote Sensing Techniques and Applications: A Review (Part II). Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14213401"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amani, M., Moghimi, A., Mirmazloumi, S.M., Ranjgar, B., Ghorbanian, A., Ojaghi, S., Ebrahimy, H., Naboureh, A., Nazari, M.E., and Mahdavi, S. (2022). Ocean Remote Sensing Techniques and Applications: A Review (Part I). Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14213401"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5872","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33409-3","article-title":"3D-printed microrobots from design to translation","volume":"13","author":"Dabbagh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1","article-title":"Micro robot as the feature of robotic in healthcare approach from design to application: The State of art and challenges","volume":"3","author":"Moshayedi","year":"2024","journal-title":"EAI Endorsed Trans. AI Robot."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(75)90029-5","article-title":"Comparison between procaine and isocarboxazid metabolism in vitro by a liver microsomal amidase-esterase","volume":"24","author":"Moroi","year":"1975","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1","article-title":"Bridging biology and robotics: Advancing submersible technology from robotic to live-fish models","volume":"2","author":"Shao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acad. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05058","article-title":"The origins and the future of microfluidics","volume":"442","author":"Whitesides","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4853","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.10.4853","article-title":"Optical trapping and manipulation of neutral particles using lasers","volume":"94","author":"Ashkin","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05060","article-title":"Developing optofluidic technology through the fusion of microfluidics and optics","volume":"442","author":"Psaltis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s101890070029","article-title":"Variable focal lens controlled by an external voltage: An application of electrowetting","volume":"3","author":"Berge","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. E"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12434","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0404423101","article-title":"Dynamic control of liquid-core\/liquid-cladding optical waveguides","volume":"101","author":"Wolfe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1021\/cr068107d","article-title":"Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensors for Detection of Chemical and Biological Species","volume":"108","author":"Homola","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s10404-007-0225-9","article-title":"Optofluidic dye lasers","volume":"4","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microfluid. Nanofluidics"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.photonics.2017.07.002","article-title":"Photonic crystal optofluidic biolaser","volume":"26","author":"Mozaffari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Photon- Nanostructures\u2014Fundam. Appl."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20200035","DOI":"10.1002\/VIW.20200035","article-title":"Emerging optofluidic technologies for biodiagnostic applications","volume":"2","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"View"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"2416178","article-title":"Recent advancements in nanophotonics for optofluidics","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Physics X"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024056","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.18.024056","article-title":"Real-Time Nanoparticle Characterization Through Optofluidic Force Induction","volume":"18","author":"Auer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mesquita, P., Gong, L., and Lin, Y. (2022). Low-cost microfluidics: Towards affordable environmental monitoring and assessment. Front. Lab A Chip Technol., 1.","DOI":"10.3389\/frlct.2022.1074009"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, N., Dai, T., and Lei, L. (2018). Optofluidic Technology for Water Quality Monitoring. Micromachines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi9040158"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-35836-2","article-title":"An optofluidic platform for interrogating chemosensory behavior and brainwide neural representation in larval zebrafish","volume":"14","author":"Sy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1515\/joc-2018-0025","article-title":"Review of LiFi Technology and Its Future Applications","volume":"42","author":"Alfattani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2025.123161","article-title":"Machine learning-integrated droplet microfluidic system for accurate quantification and classification of microplastics","volume":"274","author":"Jeon","year":"2025","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, L., Martinez, O., Mesquita, P., Kurtz, K., Xu, Y., and Lin, Y. (2023). A microfluidic approach for label-free identification of small-sized microplastics in seawater. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-37900-9"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-024-00865-4","article-title":"Optofluidic paper-based analytical device for discriminative detection of organic substances via digital color coding","volume":"11","author":"Choi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microsystems Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2031","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-023-04862-w","article-title":"Leveraging the third dimension in microfluidic devices using 3D printing: No longer just scratching the surface","volume":"416","author":"Filho","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045013","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6439\/adc313","article-title":"A low-cost 3D-printing based rapid fabrication procedure for modular microfluidic platform","volume":"35","author":"Zolfaghari","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, J., Qiu, G., and Wang, J. (2022). Recent Development of Optofluidics for Imaging and Sensing Applications. Chemosensors, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors10010015"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"56","article-title":"Microfluidic Technology for Detection","volume":"4","author":"Ay","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Health Sci. Manag."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2011.206","article-title":"Optofluidic microsystems for chemical and biological analysis","volume":"5","author":"Fan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Photon"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3543","DOI":"10.1039\/c2lc40467b","article-title":"Optofluidic devices and applications in photonics, sensing and imaging","volume":"12","author":"Pang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lab A Chip"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s10404-007-0223-y","article-title":"Optofluidic integration for microanalysis","volume":"4","author":"Hunt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microfluid. Nanofluidics"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, F., Zhu, J.M., Chen, L.F., Zuo, Y.F., Hu, X.J., and Yang, Y. (2020). Autonomous and In Situ Ocean Environmental Monitoring on Optofluidic Platform. Micromachines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi11010069"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lai, C.-Z., DeGrandpre, M.D., and Darlington, R.C. (2018). Autonomous Optofluidic Chemical Analyzers for Marine Applications: Insights from the Submersible Autonomous Moored Instruments (SAMI) for pH and pCO2. Front. Mar. Sci., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2017.00438"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Zhang, D., Men, L., and Chen, Q. (2014, January 6\u20138). Opto-Microfluidics for Monitoring Salinity and Temperature of Sea Water. Proceedings of the International Conference on Marine and Freshwater Environments (iMFE 2014)-Our Water, Our Future, St. John\u2019s, NL, Canada."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2115","DOI":"10.1016\/0967-0637(93)90048-8","article-title":"Spectrophotometric seawater pH measurements: Total hydrogen ion concentration scale calibration of m-cresol purple and at-sea results","volume":"40","author":"Clayton","year":"1993","journal-title":"Deep. Sea Res. Part I Oceanogr. Res. Pap."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"052","DOI":"10.61927\/igmin283","article-title":"Sorption-based Spectrophotometric Assay for Lead(II) with Immobilized Azo Ligand","volume":"3","author":"Mansur","year":"2025","journal-title":"IgMin Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2024.343155","article-title":"A microfluidic analyzer based on liquid waveguide capillary cells for the high-sensitivity determination of phosphate in seawater and its applications","volume":"1329","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1387591","article-title":"Flexible Methods for Microfluidics","volume":"54","author":"Whitesides","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phys. Today"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1616","article-title":"Microfabrication meets microbiology","volume":"5","author":"Weibel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1007\/s10404-017-2023-3","article-title":"Soft lithography fabrication of index-matched microfluidic devices for reducing artifacts in fluorescence and quantitative phase imaging","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microfluid. Nanofluidics"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niculescu, A.-G., Chircov, C., B\u00eerc\u0103, A.C., and Grumezescu, A.M. (2021). Fabrication and Applications of Microfluidic Devices: A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22042011"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bor\u00f3k, A., Laboda, K., and Bony\u00e1r, A. (2021). PDMS Bonding Technologies for Microfluidic Applications: A Review. Biosensors, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios11080292"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2018.06.001","article-title":"PDMS with designer functionalities\u2014Properties, modifications strategies, and applications","volume":"83","author":"Wolf","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3447","DOI":"10.1039\/C4LC00548A","article-title":"Femtosecond laser 3D micromachining: A powerful tool for the fabrication of microfluidic, optofluidic, and electrofluidic devices based on glass","volume":"14","author":"Sugioka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lab A Chip"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19402","DOI":"10.3390\/s141019402","article-title":"Femtosecond Laser Fabrication of Monolithically Integrated Microfluidic Sensors in Glass","volume":"14","author":"He","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3576","DOI":"10.1039\/c2lc40366h","article-title":"Femtosecond laser processing for optofluidic fabrication","volume":"12","author":"Sugioka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lab A Chip"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5360","DOI":"10.3390\/s110505360","article-title":"Microfabrication and Applications of Opto-Microfluidic Sensors","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2475","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.8b01085","article-title":"Advances in Optical Sensing and Bioanalysis Enabled by 3D Printing","volume":"3","author":"Lambert","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Sensors"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ngatia, L., Grace, J.M., Moriasi, D., and Taylor, R. (2019). Nitrogen and Phosphorus Eutrophication in Marine Ecosystems, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.81869"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mowlem, M., Beaton, A., Pascal, R., Schaap, A., Loucaides, S., Monk, S., Morris, A., Cardwell, C.L., Fowell, S.E., and Patey, M.D. (2021). Industry Partnership: Lab on Chip Chemical Sensor Technology for Ocean Observing. Front. Mar. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2021.697611"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1039\/D0LC00871K","article-title":"Lab-on-a-chip technology for in situ combined observations in oceanography","volume":"21","author":"Fukuba","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lab A Chip"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1021\/ed039p333","article-title":"The Beer-Lambert Law","volume":"39","author":"Swinehart","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Chem. Educ."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.13005\/ojc\/360608","article-title":"Spectrophotometric Determination of Low Levels of the Orthophosphate Anion as Molybdenum Blue using Sodium Thiosulphate Reducing agent","volume":"36","author":"Nalumansi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Orient. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7590","DOI":"10.1007\/s11664-023-10689-z","article-title":"Study of the Rapid Determination of Phosphorus in Electronic Packaging Material by Phosphorus-Molybdenum Yellow Spectrophotometry","volume":"52","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3103","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-025-05850-y","article-title":"Limitations of the molybdenum blue method for phosphate quantification in the presence of organophosphonates","volume":"417","author":"Guo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.2116\/analsci.27.1043","article-title":"Spectrophotometric Determination of Phosphate Anion Based on the Formation of Molybdophosphate in Ethylene Glycol-Water Mixed Solution","volume":"27","author":"Katano","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anal. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4025","DOI":"10.1039\/C7LC01016H","article-title":"Optofluidic marine phosphate detection with enhanced absorption using a Fabry\u2013P\u00e9rot resonator","volume":"17","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab A Chip"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1039\/D1AY01876K","article-title":"A submersible phosphate analyzer for marine environments based on inlaid microfluidics","volume":"14","author":"Morgan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/S0039-9140(01)00323-X","article-title":"Detection and determination of nitrate and nitrite: A review","volume":"54","author":"Moorcroft","year":"2001","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2006.07.054","article-title":"Analysis of nitrite and nitrate in biological fluids by assays based on the Griess reaction: Appraisal of the Griess reaction in the l-arginine\/nitric oxide area of research","volume":"851","author":"Tsikas","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niu, W., Li, H., Guo, X., Chen, J., Shi, X., and Zhu, Y. (2023). Field determination of nitrate in seawater using a novel on-line coppered cadmium column: A comparison study with the vanadium reduction method. Front. Mar. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2023.1138734"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1524","DOI":"10.1021\/acsestwater.1c00065","article-title":"Determination of Nitrate in Natural Waters by Vanadium Reduction and the Griess Assay: Reassessment and Optimization","volume":"1","author":"Pai","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS ES&T Water"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5396","DOI":"10.1039\/C5AY01357G","article-title":"Development of a low cost microfluidic sensor for the direct determination of nitrate using chromotropic acid in natural waters","volume":"7","author":"Cogan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9677","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b01032","article-title":"A Droplet Microfluidic-Based Sensor for Simultaneous in Situ Monitoring of Nitrate and Nitrite in Natural Waters","volume":"53","author":"Nightingale","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.1c01685","article-title":"Lab-on-Chip for In Situ Analysis of Nutrients in the Deep Sea","volume":"7","author":"Beaton","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Sensors"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2013.05.004","article-title":"A high performance microfluidic analyser for phosphate measurements in marine waters using the vanadomolybdate method","volume":"116","author":"Legiret","year":"2013","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(98)00616-3","article-title":"A low power ultra violet spectrophotometer for measurement of nitrate in seawater: Introduction, calibration and initial sea trials","volume":"377","author":"Finch","year":"1998","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nehir, M., Esposito, M., Begler, C., Frank, C., Zielinski, O., and Achterberg, E.P. (2021). Improved Calibration and Data Processing Procedures of OPUS Optical Sensor for High-Resolution in situ Monitoring of Nitrate in Seawater. Front. Mar. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2021.663800"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1016\/S0967-0637(02)00020-1","article-title":"In situ ultraviolet spectrophotometry for high resolution and long-term monitoring of nitrate, bromide and bisulfide in the ocean","volume":"49","author":"Johnson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Deep. Sea Res. Part I Oceanogr. Res. Pap."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Ju, A., and Wang, L. (2021). Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Detection of Nitrate and Nitrite in Seawater Simultaneously Based on Partial Least Squares. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26123685"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1039\/b211140n","article-title":"Automatic continuous river monitoring of nitrate using a novel ion-selective electrode","volume":"5","author":"Braven","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Environ. Monit."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41217","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.4c02230","article-title":"Phosphate Ion-Selective Electrode Based on Electrochemically Modified Iron","volume":"9","author":"Fan","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Chen, S., Liu, Y., Zou, Y., Wang, Y., Zhang, S., Kong, X., Gao, Y., and Gao, N. (2024). Automatic in situ sensor based on K2S2O8 oxidation method for total phosphorus detection in marine water. Front. Mar. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2024.1492115"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4203(95)00052-S","article-title":"A submersible flow-injection analyser for the in-situ determination of nitrite and nitrate in coastal waters","volume":"51","author":"Daniel","year":"1995","journal-title":"Mar. Chem."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/0160-4120(95)00010-0","article-title":"The design and performance of a portable, automated flow injection monitor for the in-situ analysis of nutrients in natural waters","volume":"21","author":"Blundell","year":"1995","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2012.07.016","article-title":"Seawater-pH measurements for ocean-acidification observations","volume":"40","author":"Floquet","year":"2012","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.marine.010908.163834","article-title":"Ocean Acidification: The Other CO2 Problem","volume":"1","author":"Doney","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marchem.2011.04.002","article-title":"pH of seawater","volume":"126","author":"Marion","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mar. Chem."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marchem.2017.02.004","article-title":"Achieving accurate spectrophotometric pH measurements using unpurified meta-cresol purple","volume":"190","author":"Douglas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mar. Chem."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4862","DOI":"10.1021\/es200665d","article-title":"Purification and Characterization of meta-Cresol Purple for Spectrophotometric Seawater pH Measurements","volume":"45","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.4319\/lom.2013.11.16","article-title":"An automated system for spectrophotometric seawater pH measurements","volume":"11","author":"Carter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14968","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c03517","article-title":"A Novel Lab-on-Chip Spectrophotometric pH Sensor for Autonomous In Situ Seawater Measurements to 6000 m Depth on Stationary and Moving Observing Platforms","volume":"55","author":"Yin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5194\/sp-1-osr7-10-2023","article-title":"Dissolved oxygen as an indicator of multiple drivers of the marine ecosystem: The southern Adriatic Sea case study","volume":"1-osr7","author":"Martellucci","year":"2023","journal-title":"State Planet"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.22271\/fish.2022.v10.i4b.2693","article-title":"Effects of dissolved oxygen concentration on freshwater fish: A review","volume":"10","author":"Ali","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Fish. Aquat. Stud."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29564","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2024.3441692","article-title":"Research Progress of Optical Dissolved Oxygen Sensors: A Review","volume":"24","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michelucci, U., Baumgartner, M., and Venturini, F. (2019). Optical Oxygen Sensing with Artificial Intelligence. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201901.0047.v1"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10452","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2932414","article-title":"Optofluidic Dissolved Oxygen Sensing with Sensitivity Enhancement Through Multiple Reflections","volume":"19","author":"Mahoney","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors J."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, F., Chen, L., Zhu, J., Hu, X., and Yang, Y. (2021). A Phosphorescence Quenching-Based Intelligent Dissolved Oxygen Sensor on an Optofluidic Platform. Micromachines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi12030281"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-anchem-061020-111458","article-title":"Oxygen Measurement in Microdevices","volume":"15","author":"Grist","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melnikov, P.V., Alexandrovskaya, A.Y., Naumova, A.O., Arlyapov, V.A., Kamanina, O.A., Popova, N.M., Zaitsev, N.K., and Yashtulov, N.A. (2022). Optical Oxygen Sensing and Clark Electrode: Face-to-Face in a Biosensor Case Study. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197626"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filippidou, M.-K., and Chatzandroulis, S. (2023). Microfluidic Devices for Heavy Metal Ions Detection: A Review. Micromachines, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi14081520"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2810","DOI":"10.1039\/D4AY00293H","article-title":"Integrated microfluidic platforms for heavy metal sensing: A comprehensive review","volume":"16","author":"Nadumane","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2011.12.030","article-title":"Microfluidic heavy metal immunoassay based on absorbance measurement","volume":"33","author":"Date","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2014.12.045","article-title":"Development and application of a microfluidic in-situ analyzer for dissolved Fe and Mn in natural waters","volume":"136","author":"Milani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5431","DOI":"10.1039\/C9AY01580A","article-title":"Arsenic detection in water using microfluidic detection systems based on the leucomalachite green method","volume":"11","author":"Lace","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Acha, N., Elos\u00faa, C., Corres, J.M., and Arregui, F.J. (2019). Fluorescent Sensors for the Detection of Heavy Metal Ions in Aqueous Media. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030599"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, W., Zhang, C., Ma, T., Liu, X., Chen, Z., Li, S., and Deng, Y. (2021). Advances in aptamer screening and aptasensors\u2019 detection of heavy metal ions. J. Nanobiotechnology, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-021-00914-4"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2018.11.010","article-title":"An integrated microfluidic device with solid-phase extraction and graphene oxide quantum dot array for highly sensitive and multiplex detection of trace metal ions","volume":"126","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2019.127462","article-title":"ZnSe quantum dot based ion imprinting technology for fluorescence detecting cadmium and lead ions on a three-dimensional rotary paper-based microfluidic chip","volume":"305","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sensors Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, W.-H., Mai, V.-P., Wu, R.-Y., Yeh, K.-L., and Yang, R.-J. (2021). A Microfluidic Aptamer-Based Sensor for Detection of Mercury(II) and Lead(II) Ions in Water. Micromachines, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202109.0056.v1"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.152636","article-title":"Design of microfluidic fluorescent sensor arrays for real-time and synchronously visualized detection of multi-component heavy metal ions","volume":"493","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021320","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0194194","article-title":"Emerging MEMS sensors for ocean physics: Principles, materials, and applications","volume":"11","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2022.116894","article-title":"Recent progress in microfluidic biosensors with different driving forces","volume":"158","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassan, S.-U., Tariq, A., Noreen, Z., Donia, A., Zaidi, S.Z.J., Bokhari, H., and Zhang, X. (2020). Capillary-Driven Flow Microfluidics Combined with Smartphone Detection: An Emerging Tool for Point-of-Care Diagnostics. Diagnostics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics10080509"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3159","DOI":"10.1109\/TCYB.2020.3008998","article-title":"Event-Triggered Dynamic Positioning for Mass-Switched Unmanned Marine Vehicles in Network Environments","volume":"52","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.4c02670","article-title":"Antibiofouling Coatings For Marine Sensors: Progress and Perspectives on Materials, Methods, Impacts, and Field Trial Studies","volume":"10","author":"Sahoo","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Sensors"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado, A., Briciu-Burghina, C., and Regan, F. (2021). Antifouling Strategies for Sensors Used in Water Monitoring: Review and Future Perspectives. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21020389"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1080\/08927010601136957","article-title":"Engineered antifouling microtopographies\u2014Effect of feature size, geometry, and roughness on settlement of zoospores of the green alga","volume":"23","author":"Schumacher","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ulva. Biofouling"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001121","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202001121","article-title":"Seawater-Degradable Polymers\u2014Fighting the Marine Plastic Pollution","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2022.339989","article-title":"Current state and future prospects of sensors for evaluating polymer biodegradability and sensors made from biodegradable polymers: A review","volume":"1217","author":"Koh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1909","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.546137","article-title":"High-sensitivity optical fiber seawater temperature and pressure sensor with a low-error demodulation method","volume":"33","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biglari, A., and Tang, W. (2023). A Review of Embedded Machine Learning Based on Hardware, Application, and Sensing Scheme. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23042131"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.001.1900593","article-title":"A Software-Defined Opto-Acoustic Network Architecture for Internet of Underwater Things","volume":"58","author":"Celik","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2019.101935","article-title":"Underwater optical wireless communications, networking, and localization: A survey","volume":"94","author":"Saeed","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Networks"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Jing, Y., Yu, J., Ma, B., Sui, M., Zhu, Y., Dai, L., Yu, S., Li, M., and Wang, L. (2023). Micro\/nanorobots for remediation of water resources and aquatic life. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.1312074"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13171","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.4c02115","article-title":"Magnetic Microrobot Swarms with Polymeric Hands Catching Bacteria and Microplastics in Water","volume":"18","author":"Ussia","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eng.2024.10.022","article-title":"Actuation and Locomotion of Miniature Underwater Robots: A Survey","volume":"51","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Engineering"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abh0474","article-title":"An autonomously swimming biohybrid fish designed with human cardiac biophysics","volume":"375","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e52882","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.52882","article-title":"From behavior to circuit modeling of light-seeking navigation in zebrafish larvae","volume":"9","author":"Karpenko","year":"2020","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anuszczyk, S.R., and O Dabiri, J. (2024). Electromechanical enhancement of live jellyfish for ocean exploration. Bioinspiration Biomim., 19.","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-3190\/ad277f"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/25\/21\/6591\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T05:55:45Z","timestamp":1761717345000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/25\/21\/6591"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]]},"references-count":130,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s25216591"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s25216591","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]]}}}