{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T18:48:14Z","timestamp":1782413294755,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,4]],"date-time":"2025-11-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762214400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004504","name":"Lithuanian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["S-MIP-24-111"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S-MIP-24-111"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004504","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study aims to propose a plausible application of a novel electrochemical biosensing system for detecting antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 (anti-rS) in serum samples. The uniqueness of this study lies in the biosensor utilizing recombinant spike glycoprotein (SCoV2-rS) immobilized on an indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode modified with (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES). The electrochemical performance was evaluated using square wave voltammetry (SWV), demonstrating a linear relationship between the current density and anti-rS concentration. The limit of detection (LOD) was found to be 113 ng\/mL (0.75 nM), and the limit of quantitation (LOQ) was equal to 338 ng\/mL (2.25 nM). The reported electrochemical biosensor offers a straightforward and efficient method for evaluating the immune status of individuals who have recovered from COVID-19 and been vaccinated against this virus without the need for any redox probe.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25216737","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,4]],"date-time":"2025-11-04T12:13:08Z","timestamp":1762258388000},"page":"6737","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Indium Tin Oxide-Based Voltammetric Biosensor for the Detection of Antibodies Against the SARS-CoV-2 Virus Spike Protein"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1895-0130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Greta","family":"Zvirzdine","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"NanoTechnas\u2014Center of Nanotechnology and Materials Science, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, Naugarduko Str. 24, 03225 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1257-0396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maryia","family":"Drobysh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NanoTechnas\u2014Center of Nanotechnology and Materials Science, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, Naugarduko Str. 24, 03225 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5864-0359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Almira","family":"Ramanaviciene","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NanoTechnas\u2014Center of Nanotechnology and Materials Science, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, Naugarduko Str. 24, 03225 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9931-4397","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vilma","family":"Ratautaite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NanoTechnas\u2014Center of Nanotechnology and Materials Science, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, Naugarduko Str. 24, 03225 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2957-3123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarunas","family":"Zukauskas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NanoTechnas\u2014Center of Nanotechnology and Materials Science, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, Naugarduko Str. 24, 03225 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-8844-2100","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Migle","family":"Stanciauskaite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NanoTechnas\u2014Center of Nanotechnology and Materials Science, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, Naugarduko Str. 24, 03225 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7972-8891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ieva","family":"Plikusiene","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NanoTechnas\u2014Center of Nanotechnology and Materials Science, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, Naugarduko Str. 24, 03225 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0885-3556","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arunas","family":"Ramanavicius","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NanoTechnas\u2014Center of Nanotechnology and Materials Science, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, Naugarduko Str. 24, 03225 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mittal, A., Khattri, A., and Verma, V. 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