{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T21:50:31Z","timestamp":1779141031265,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["UIDB\/04501\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04501\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["UIDB\/04279\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04279\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["UIDB\/04057\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04057\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["FCT\/IF\/00098\/2015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT\/IF\/00098\/2015"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["2023.11597.PEX"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023.11597.PEX"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["CISUC-UID\/CEC\/00326\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CISUC-UID\/CEC\/00326\/2020"]}]},{"name":"EUROBENCH","award":["779963"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["779963"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Real-time tactile feedback has been applied in exoskeleton-based neurorehabilitation, particularly in spinal cord injury, through Foot-to-Forearm Feedback (FFF) at ground contact. Its effects on healthy individuals across varied terrains remain less understood. This pilot study investigated seven healthy participants controlling a lower-limb exoskeleton under two conditions (with and without FFF) across five scenarios: Flat, M-Shape, A-Shape, V-Shape, and Random. Objective measures included step count, sacroiliac joint (SIJ) segment length, and SIJ angle. Subjective experience was assessed by overall preference and a Global Experience Index (GEI) derived from questionnaire ratings. Analyses showed no consistent differences in step count, SIJ length, or SIJ angle between Control and FFF. In three runs, technical issues occurred (e.g., a loose cable). Subjective data showed that five of seven participants (71.4%) preferred FFF, one reported no difference, and one preferred the Control condition. Scenario-specific analyses indicated a preference for FFF in Flat (5\/7 = 71.4%), but a lower preference in Random (2\/6 = 33.3%). GEI scores decreased under A-Shape and Random conditions, though FFF partially mitigated the reduction in A-Shape. These preliminary findings suggest that FFF may influence subjective experience in healthy users, but confirmation will require larger samples and further investigation across scenarios.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25227050","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T11:17:27Z","timestamp":1763551047000},"page":"7050","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Foot-to-Forearm Tactile Feedback for Lower-Limb Exoskeleton Control: A Pilot Benchmarking Study in Healthy Adults"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7875-6492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mafalda","family":"Aguiar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9262-0375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carla","family":"Pais-Vieira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Health (CIIS), Faculty of Health Sciences and Nursing, Portuguese Catholic University, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4417-6115","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dem\u00e9trio","family":"Matos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Design, Media and Culture, Polytechnic Institute of C\u00e1vado and Ave, 4750-299 Barcelos, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2953-0585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Perrotta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Informatics and Systems of the University of Coimbra (CISUC), Department of Informatics Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-290 Coimbra, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Kreynin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ExoAtlet, 4354 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1398-9060","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Pais-Vieira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biomedicine (iBiMED), Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021004","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/aaa8c0","article-title":"Brain\u2013machine interfaces for controlling lower-limb powered robotic systems","volume":"15","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Mendoza, B., Santiago-Tovar, P.A., Guerrero-Godinez, M.A., and Garc\u00eda-Vences, E. (2020). Rehabilitation therapies in spinal cord injury patients. Paraplegia, IntechOpen. Available online: https:\/\/www.intechopen.com\/books\/9800.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.92825"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Donati, A.R., Shokur, S., Morya, E., Campos, D.S., Moioli, R.C., Gitti, C.M., Augusto, P.B., Tripodi, S., Pires, C.G., and Pereira, G.A. (2016). Long-term training with a brain-machine interface-based gait protocol induces partial neurological recovery in paraplegic patients. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep30383"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-018-0642-3","article-title":"Robotic rehabilitation and spinal cord injury: A narrative review","volume":"15","author":"Mekki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"36","article-title":"Exoskeleton-based training improves walking independence in incomplete spinal cord injury patients: Results from a randomized controlled trial","volume":"201","author":"Pons","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pais-Vieira, C., Gaspar, P., Matos, D., Alves, L.P., da Cruz, B.M., Azevedo, M.J., Gago, M., Poleri, T., Perrotta, A., and Pais-Vieira, M. (2022). Embodiment comfort levels during motor imagery training combined with immersive virtual reality in a spinal cord injury patient. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.909112"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pais-Vieira, C., Figueiredo, J.G., Perrotta, A., Matos, D., Aguiar, M., Ramos, J., Gato, M., Poleri, T., and Pais-Vieira, M. (2024). Activation of a Rhythmic Lower Limb Movement Pattern during the Use of a Multimodal Brain\u2013Computer Interface: A Case Study of a Clinically Complete Spinal Cord Injury. Life, 143.","DOI":"10.3390\/life14030396"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(97)01136-3","article-title":"The body in the brain: Neural bases of corporeal awareness","volume":"20","author":"Berlucchi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198510697.003.0006","article-title":"How the brain represents the body: Insights from neurophysiology and psychology","volume":"19","author":"Graziano","year":"2002","journal-title":"Common Mech. Percept. Action Atten. Perform. XIX"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1141683","article-title":"The sense of embodiment in virtual reality","volume":"214","author":"Kilteni","year":"2012","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramos, J., Aguiar, M., and Pais-Vieira, M. (2023). Neural Encoding of Pavement Textures during Exoskeleton Control: A Pilot Study Applied. Sciences, 1316.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13169356"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"55","article-title":"Wearable robotic exoskeleton for gait reconstruction in patients with spinal cord injury: A literature review","volume":"28","author":"Tan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Transl."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torricelli, D., and Pons, J.L. (2019). Eurobench: Preparing robots for the real world. Wearable Robotics: Challenges and Trends: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Wearable Robotics, WeRob2018, Pisa, Italy, 16\u201320 October 2018, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01887-0_72"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mex.2020.100849","article-title":"Method for positioning and rehabilitation training with the ExoAtlet\u00ae powered exoskeleton","volume":"7","author":"Allahdad","year":"2020","journal-title":"MethodsX"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Perrota, A., Cardoso, J.C.S., and Gaspar, P. (September, January 30). Thertact-system: A virtual reality exoskeleton gait training simulator controlled by brain-computer interface. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Systems Development, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Sousa, N.J.C., Perrotta, A.V., Vieira, C.F.d.S.P., Matos, D.F., and Vieira, M.S.P. (2025). Device for Thermal and Tactile. (No. PT117120B), Stimulation. Patent, Available online: https:\/\/patents.google.com\/patent\/PT117120B\/en?q=(miguel+santos)&inventor=pais+vieira&oq=miguel+santos+pais+vieira."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2019.2929257","article-title":"Openpose: Realtime multi-person 2d pose estimation using part affinity fields","volume":"43","author":"Cao","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Camardella, C., Lippi, V., Porcini, F., Bassani, G., Lencioni, L., Mauer, C., Haverkamp, C., Avizzano, C.A., Frisoli, A., and Filippeschi, A. (2024). User-centered evaluation of the wearable walker lower limb exoskeleton; preliminary assessment based on the experience protocol. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24165358"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bolognini, N., and Maravita, A. (2011). Uncovering multisensory processing through non-invasive brain stimulation. Front. Psychol., 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2011.00046"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guidali, G., Roncoroni, C., and Bolognini, N. (2021). Modulating frontal networks\u2019 Timing-Dependent-Like plasticity with paired associative stimulation protocols: Recent advances and future perspectives. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.658723"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.116025","article-title":"Hebbian associative plasticity in the visuo-tactile domain: A cross-modal paired associative stimulation protocol","volume":"201","author":"Zazio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroimage"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/25\/22\/7050\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T11:27:20Z","timestamp":1763551640000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/25\/22\/7050"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"references-count":21,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s25227050"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s25227050","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]}}}