{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T05:19:59Z","timestamp":1790313599070,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,6]],"date-time":"2025-12-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764979200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie","award":["858101"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["858101"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>LiDAR is used in autonomous driving for navigation, obstacle avoidance, and environment mapping. However, adverse weather conditions introduce noise into sensor data, potentially degrading the performance of perception algorithms and compromising the safety and reliability of autonomous driving systems. Hence, in this paper, we investigate the limitations of LiDAR perception algorithms in adverse weather conditions, explore ways to mitigate the effects of noise, and propose future research directions to achieve all-weather autonomy with LiDAR sensors. Using real-world datasets and synthetically generated dense fog, we characterize the noise in adverse weather such as snow, rain, and fog; their effect on sensor data; and how to effectively mitigate the noise for tasks like object detection, localization, and SLAM. Specifically, we investigate point cloud filtering methods and compare them based on their ability to denoise point clouds, focusing on processing time, accuracy, and limitations. Additionally, we evaluate the impact of adverse weather on state-of-the-art 3D object detection, localization, and SLAM methods, as well as the effect of point cloud filtering on the algorithms\u2019 performance. We find that point cloud filtering methods are partially successful at removing noise due to adverse weather, but must be fine-tuned for the specific LiDAR, application scenario, and type of adverse weather. 3D object detection was negatively affected by adverse weather, but performance improved with dynamic filtering algorithms. We found that heavy snowfall does not affect localization when using a map constructed in clear weather, but it fails in dense fog due to a low number of feature points. SLAM also failed in thick fog outdoors, but it performed well in heavy snowfall. Filtering algorithms have varied effects on SLAM performance depending on the type of scan-matching algorithm.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25247436","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]],"date-time":"2025-12-08T15:30:07Z","timestamp":1765207807000},"page":"7436","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Evaluating LiDAR Perception Algorithms for All-Weather Autonomy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9364-7994","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Himanshu","family":"Gupta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Applied Autonomous Sensor Systems, \u00d6rebro University, 70182 \u00d6rebro, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0217-9326","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Achim J.","family":"Lilienthal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Applied Autonomous Sensor Systems, \u00d6rebro University, 70182 \u00d6rebro, Sweden"},{"name":"Chair Perception for Intelligent Systems (PercInS), Munich Institute of Robotics and Machine Intelligence (MIRMI), Technical University of Munich, 80992 M\u00fcnchen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Henrik","family":"Andreasson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Applied Autonomous Sensor Systems, \u00d6rebro University, 70182 \u00d6rebro, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carballo, A., Lambert, J., Monrroy, A., Wong, D., Narksri, P., Kitsukawa, Y., Takeuchi, E., Kato, S., and Takeda, K. 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