{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T18:52:39Z","timestamp":1790189559086,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]],"date-time":"2025-12-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766620800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Saudi National Institute of Health [Saudi NIH]","award":["46634254"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["46634254"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dengue fever remains a major mosquito\u2013borne disease worldwide, with over 400 million infections annually and a high risk of severe complications such as dengue hemorrhagic fever. The disease is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, where population density and limited vector control accelerate transmission, making early and reliable diagnosis essential for outbreak prevention and disease management. Conventional diagnostic methods, including virus isolation, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT\u2013PCR), enzyme\u2013linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), and serological testing, are accurate but often constrained by high cost, labor\u2013intensive procedures, centralized laboratory requirements, and delayed turnaround times. This review examines current dengue diagnostic technologies by outlining their working principles, performance characteristics, and practical limitations, with emphasis on key target analytes such as viral RNA; nonstructural protein 1 (NS1), including DENV\u20132 NS1; and host antibodies. Diagnostic approaches across commonly used biofluids, including whole blood, serum, plasma, and urine, are discussed. Recent advances in biosensing technologies are reviewed, including optical, electrochemical, microwave, microfluidic, and CRISPR\u2013based platforms, along with the integration of artificial intelligence for data analysis and diagnostic enhancement. Overall, this review highlights the need for accurate, scalable, and field\u2013deployable diagnostic solutions to support early dengue detection and reduce the global disease burden.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26010145","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]],"date-time":"2025-12-25T23:52:27Z","timestamp":1766706747000},"page":"145","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Next\u2014Generation Diagnostic Technologies for Dengue Virus Detection: Microfluidics, Biosensing, CRISPR, and AI Approaches"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Salim","family":"El Kabbani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1502-3582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gameel","family":"Saleh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024, December 06). Dengue and Severe Dengue. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/dengue-and-severe-dengue."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vhri.2013.10.002","article-title":"Dengue Epidemiology and Burden of Disease in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Systematic Review of the Literature and Meta-Analysis","volume":"2","author":"Cafferata","year":"2013","journal-title":"Value Health Reg. Issues"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"1","article-title":"The geographic distribution of dengue fever and the potential influence of global climate change","volume":"2011","author":"Bambrick","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISEE Conf. Abstr."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024, December 06). Dengue\u2014Global Situation. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/disease-outbreak-news\/item\/2023-DON498."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijregi.2024.100459","article-title":"Global landmark: 2023 marks the worst year for dengue cases with millions infected and thousands of deaths reported","volume":"13","author":"Haider","year":"2024","journal-title":"IJID Reg."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2025, November 26). Dengue Fever Outbreak in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: September 2022 to April 2023|Field Epidemiology Training Program. Available online: https:\/\/www.saudifetp.org\/seb\/dengue-fever-outbreak-jeddah-saudi-arabia-september-2022-april-2023."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1111\/1748-5967.12685","article-title":"Prevalence of dengue fever in Saudi Arabia: Jeddah as a case study","volume":"53","author":"Alyahya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Entomol. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2025, November 26). Dengue Fever Awareness Starts in Jeddah|National Platform (National Portal), Available online: https:\/\/my.gov.sa\/en\/news\/3126."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laporta, G.Z., Potter, A.M., Oliveira, J.F.A., Bourke, B.P., Pecor, D.B., and Linton, Y.-M. (2023). Global Distribution of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in a Climate Change Scenario of Regional Rivalry. Insects, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/insects14010049"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"305","article-title":"Mosquito vector control and biology in Latin America\u2014A second symposium","volume":"8","author":"Clark","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/2051013613507862","article-title":"Latest developments and future directions in dengue vaccines","volume":"2","author":"Thisyakorn","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.59566\/IJBS.2013.9061","article-title":"Dengue: A Growing Menace\u2014A Snapshot of Recent Facts, Figures & Remedies","volume":"9","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"243","article-title":"The History of Dengue in Tropical Asia and its Probable Relationship to the Mosquito Aedes aegypti","volume":"59","author":"Smith","year":"1956","journal-title":"J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mjafi.2014.09.011","article-title":"Discovery of fifth serotype of dengue virus (DENV-5): A new public health dilemma in dengue control","volume":"71","author":"Mustafa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. J. Armed Forces India"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"317","article-title":"Alphaviruses in Peninusular Malaysia: I. Virus isolations and animal serology","volume":"9","author":"Marchette","year":"1978","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"90","article-title":"Yellow fever virus, dengue 2 and other arboviruses isolated from mosquitos, in Burkina Faso, from 1983 to 1986. Entomological and epidemiological considerations","volume":"86","author":"Robert","year":"1993","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-virology-100114-055238","article-title":"Virus-Host Interactions: From Unbiased Genetic Screens to Function","volume":"2","author":"Ramage","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Virol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2006.01.021","article-title":"Functional characterization of the NS2B\/NS3 protease complex from seven viruses belonging to different groups inside the genus Flavivirus","volume":"120","author":"Bessaud","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4224816","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/4224816","article-title":"Production, Transmission, Pathogenesis, and Control of Dengue Virus: A Literature-Based Undivided Perspective","volume":"2021","author":"Islam","year":"2021","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"39","article-title":"Dengue fever","volume":"1","author":"Ashley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Anaesth. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2015.01.005","article-title":"An introduction to dengue-disease diagnostics","volume":"67","author":"Darwish","year":"2015","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Pervin, M., Shahina, T., Sil, B.K., and Md, N.I. (2024, December 06). Isolation and Serotyping of Dengue Viruses by Mosquito Inoculation and Cell Culture Technique: An Experience in Bangladesh. World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/iris.who.int\/handle\/10665\/163882."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-0348-1_2","article-title":"Isolation and titration of dengue viruses by the mosquito inoculation technique","volume":"1138","author":"Choy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/0928-0197(94)00060-8","article-title":"Indirect immunofluorescence for serological diagnosis of dengue virus infections in Swedish patients","volume":"4","author":"Vene","year":"1995","journal-title":"Clin. Diagn. Virol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez-Liu, C., Machain-Williams, C., Martinez-Acu\u00f1a, N., Lozano-Sepulveda, S., Galan-Huerta, K., Arellanos-Soto, D., Mel\u00e9ndez-Villanueva, M., \u00c1valos-Nolazco, D., P\u00e9rez-Ibarra, K., and Galindo-Rodr\u00edguez, S. (2022). Development of a Rapid Gold Nanoparticle-Based Lateral Flow Immunoassay for the Detection of Dengue Virus. Biosensors, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios12070495"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jalali, M., Saldanha, F.Y.L., and Jalali, M. (2017). Chapter 1\u2014The Polymerase Chain Reaction: PCR, qPCR, and RT-PCR. Basic Science Methods for Clinical Researchers, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-803077-6.00001-1"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2634","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.36.9.2634-2639.1998","article-title":"Typing of Dengue Viruses in Clinical Specimens and Mosquitoes by Single-Tube Multiplex Reverse Transcriptase PCR","volume":"36","author":"Harris","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13877","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.202001700RR","article-title":"Clinical sensitivity and interpretation of PCR and serological COVID-19 diagnostics for patients presenting to the hospital","volume":"34","author":"Miller","year":"2020","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2024, December 06). Laboratory Diagnosis And Diagnostic Tests, Dengue: Guidelines for Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control: New Edition, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK143156\/."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2023.341565","article-title":"Next-generation diagnostic test for dengue virus detection using an ultrafast plasmonic colorimetric RT-PCR strategy","volume":"1274","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kabir, A., Zilouchian, H., Younas, M.A., and Asghar, W. (2021). Dengue Detection: Advances in Diagnostic Tools from Conventional Technology to Point of Care. Biosensors, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios11070206"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musso, D., and Despr\u00e8s, P. (2020). Serological Diagnosis of Flavivirus-Associated Human Infections. Diagnostics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics10050302"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2017.11.064","article-title":"Immunofluorescence\u2013based biosensor for the determination of dengue virus NS1 in clinical samples","volume":"149","author":"Darwish","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, P.-K., Chang, J.-H., Ke, L.-Y., Kao, J.-K., Chen, C.-H., Yang, R.-C., Yoshimura, T., Ito, E., and Tsai, J.-J. (2023). Advanced Detection Method for Dengue NS1 Protein Using Ultrasensitive ELISA with Thio-NAD Cycling. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15091894"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.2142\/biophysics.10.49","article-title":"Ultrasensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) of proteins by combination with the thio-NAD cycling method","volume":"10","author":"Watabe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biophysics"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"155","article-title":"Virology: Principles and Applications","volume":"81","author":"Ding","year":"2008","journal-title":"Yale J. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2025, October 15). Dengue Guidelines, for Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789241547871."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.09-0798","article-title":"Factors influencing dengue virus isolation by C6\/36 cell culture and mosquito inoculation of nested PCR-positive clinical samples","volume":"84","author":"Jarman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scarpaleggia, M., Garzillo, G., Lucente, M., Fraccalvieri, C., Randazzo, N., Massaro, E., Galano, B., Ricucci, V., Bruzzone, B., and Domnich, A. (2024). Diagnostic Accuracy of Five Molecular Assays for the Detection of Dengue Virus. Medicina, 60.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina60091557"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2010.157131","article-title":"Laboratory Medicine Best Practices: Systematic Evidence Review and Evaluation Methods for Quality Improvement","volume":"57","author":"Christenson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2025, November 24). Emerging Technologies in Point-of-Care Molecular Diagnostics for Resource-Limited Settings|Request PDF. ResearchGate. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/262015193_Emerging_technologies_in_point-of-care_molecular_diagnostics_for_resource-limited_settings."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"CDC (2025, November 24). Serologic Tests for Dengue Virus. Dengue, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/dengue\/hcp\/diagnosis-testing\/serologic-tests-for-dengue-virus.html."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.08.020","article-title":"Simultaneous electrochemical determination of epinephrine and uric acid in the presence of ascorbic acid using SnO2\/graphene nanocomposite modified glassy carbon electrode","volume":"221","author":"Lavanya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaspar-Castillo, C., Rodr\u00edguez, M.H., Ortiz-Navarrete, V., Alpuche-Aranda, C.M., and Martinez-Barnetche, J. (2023). Structural and immunological basis of cross-reactivity between dengue and Zika infections: Implications in serosurveillance in endemic regions. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1107496"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sintl.2021.100100","article-title":"Biosensors applications in medical field: A brief review","volume":"2","author":"Haleem","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sensors Int."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"100269","article-title":"Recent advances in optical biosensing approaches for biomarkers detection","volume":"12","author":"Denizli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron. X"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2024.117640","article-title":"Advances and challenges in portable optical biosensors for onsite detection and point-of-care diagnostics","volume":"173","author":"Rasheed","year":"2024","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceja.2023.100516","article-title":"Fundamentals of bio-electrochemical sensing","volume":"16","author":"Shanbhag","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J. Adv."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J.-M., Wang, Y.-K., Shi, B.-W., Wang, Y.-X., Jiang, Y.-F., Yang, G.-L., Gao, X.-D., and Qiang, T. (2024). Microwave biosensor for the detection of growth inhibition of human liver cancer cells at different concentrations of chemotherapeutic drug. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1398189"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1186\/s40364-024-00697-4","article-title":"Microfluidic biosensors for biomarker detection in body fluids: A key approach for early cancer diagnosis","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomark. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044101","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0214436","article-title":"A method to prevent clogging and clustering in microfluidic systems using microbubble streaming","volume":"18","author":"Bakhtiari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomicrofluidics"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymeth.2025.04.018","article-title":"CRISPR revolution: Unleashing precision pathogen detection to safeguard public health and food safety","volume":"240","author":"Liberty","year":"2025","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2025, November 25). What Are the Ethical Concerns of Genome Editing?, Available online: https:\/\/www.genome.gov\/about-genomics\/policy-issues\/Genome-Editing\/ethical-concerns."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1042\/EBC20150010","article-title":"Optical biosensors","volume":"60","year":"2016","journal-title":"Essays Biochem."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12915","DOI":"10.1039\/D3NR01858J","article-title":"Development of a thermochromic lateral flow assay to improve sensitivity for dengue virus serotype 2 NS1 detection","volume":"15","author":"Trakoolwilaiwan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jab.2013.02.001","article-title":"Advances in biosensors: Principle, architecture and applications","volume":"12","author":"Perumal","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2025, November 30). English: Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Configuration. Available online: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?curid=18139885."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2021.113720","article-title":"Portable fiber-optic SPR platform for the detection of NS1-antigen for dengue diagnosis","volume":"196","author":"Gahlaut","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1007\/s11468-023-01856-3","article-title":"Titanium Disilicide, Black Phosphorus\u2013Based Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor for Dengue Detection","volume":"18","author":"Almawgani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Plasmonics"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11302","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-68357-9","article-title":"Nanosensors based on LSPR are able to serologically differentiate dengue from Zika infections","volume":"10","author":"Versiani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aprilia, L., Mayasari, R.D., Yanza, N., Pambudi, S., Budi, A.S., and Nuryadi, R. (2022, January 6\u20137). Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor Based on Kretschmann Configuration for Dengue Virus Detection. Proceedings of the 2022 International Conference on Radar, Antenna, Microwave, Electronics, and Telecommunications (ICRAMET), Bandung, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRAMET56917.2022.9991240"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2527","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.9b04129","article-title":"SERS Platform for Dengue Diagnosis from Clinical Samples Employing a Hand Held Raman Spectrometer","volume":"92","author":"Gahlaut","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.7b00110","article-title":"Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy-Based Sandwich Immunoassays for Multiplexed Detection of Zika and Dengue Viral Biomarkers","volume":"3","author":"Bosch","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2022.214909","article-title":"Recent advances in photonic crystal-based sensors","volume":"475","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Coord. Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dakhlaoui, H., Belhadj, W., Elabidi, H., Al-Shameri, N.S., Ungan, F., and Wong, B.M. (2024). Harnessing a Dielectric\/Plasma Photonic Crystal as an Optical Microwave Filter: Role of Defect Layers and External Magnetic Fields. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17030559"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s11468-021-01555-x","article-title":"Design of a Biosensor for the Detection of Dengue Virus Using 1D Photonic Crystals","volume":"17","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Plasmonics"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2021.107265","article-title":"Recent advances in photonic crystal optical devices: A review","volume":"142","author":"Butt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.3390\/s80314000","article-title":"Electrochemical Biosensors\u2014Sensor Principles and Architectures","volume":"8","author":"Grieshaber","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4873","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-021-03449-7","article-title":"NS1 glycoprotein detection in serum and urine as an electrochemical screening immunosensor for dengue and Zika virus","volume":"413","author":"Santos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12464","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.8b01802","article-title":"Femtomolar Detection of Dengue Virus DNA with Serotype Identification Ability","volume":"90","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2019.111878","article-title":"Opto-electrochemical functionality of Ru(II)-reinforced graphene oxide nanosheets for immunosensing of dengue virus non-structural 1 protein","volume":"150","author":"Kanagavalli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2211","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-017-2249-5","article-title":"A needle-like Cu2CdSnS4 alloy nanostructure-based integrated electrochemical biosensor for detecting the DNA of Dengue serotype 2","volume":"184","author":"Voon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmeasuresciau.2c00070","article-title":"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy\u2500A Tutorial","volume":"3","author":"Lazanas","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Meas. Sci. Au"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2022.114630","article-title":"Electrochemical detection of Zika and Dengue infections using a single chip","volume":"216","author":"Sampaio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"77","article-title":"Polyaniline Based Electrochemical Sensor for the Detection of Dengue Virus Infection","volume":"12","author":"Dutta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Avicenna J. Med. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.07.020","article-title":"Recent advances in metamaterial split-ring-resonator circuits as biosensors and therapeutic agents","volume":"86","author":"RoyChoudhury","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salim, A., and Lim, S. (2018). Review of Recent Metamaterial Microfluidic Sensors. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18010232"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131915","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3336815","article-title":"A Compact Metamaterial Biosensor for Multi-Virus Detection with Tunability and High Incidence Angle Absorption","volume":"11","author":"Upender","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kothai, R., Arul, B., Kothai, R., and Arul, B. (2020). Dengue Fever: An Overview. Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.92315"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19587","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-76350-5","article-title":"Dengue virus infection impedes megakaryopoiesis in MEG-01 cells where the virus envelope protein interacts with the transcription factor TAL-1","volume":"10","author":"Banerjee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"CDC (2025, December 11). Pathophysiology of Dengue Virus Infection, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/dengue\/training\/cme\/ccm\/Pathophysiology.pdf."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"(2025, January 18). Hematocrit Test: What It Is, Levels, High & Low Range. Cleveland Clinic. Available online: https:\/\/my.clevelandclinic.org\/health\/diagnostics\/17683-hematocrit."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ralapanawa, U., Alawattegama, A.T.M., Gunrathne, M., Tennakoon, S., Kularatne, S.A.M., and Jayalath, T. (2018). Value of peripheral blood count for dengue severity prediction. BMC Res. Notes, 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-018-3505-4"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aeue.2022.154134","article-title":"Double-Layered metamaterial resonator operating at millimetre wave for detection of dengue virus","volume":"146","author":"Qureshi","year":"2022","journal-title":"AEU\u2014Int. J. Electron. Commun."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3720","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.2c01525","article-title":"All-Serotype Dengue Virus Detection through Multilayered Origami-Based Paper\/Polymer Microfluidics","volume":"7","author":"Biswas","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pormrungruang, P., Phanthanawiboon, S., Jessadaluk, S., Larpthavee, P., Thaosing, J., Rangkasikorn, A., Kayunkid, N., Waiwijit, U., Horprathum, M., and Klamchuen, A. (2023). Metal Oxide Nanostructures Enhanced Microfluidic Platform for Efficient and Sensitive Immunofluorescence Detection of Dengue Virus. Nanomaterials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano13212846"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S., Ji, S., and Koh, H.R. (2021). CRISPR as a Diagnostic Tool. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11081162"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2020.128677","article-title":"Fabrication of ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor for dengue fever viral RNA Based on CRISPR\/Cpf1 reaction","volume":"326","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2022.132011","article-title":"Proximity sequence enhanced CRISPR-Cas12a connected through hybridization chain reaction for sensitive biosensing of dengue virus","volume":"366","author":"Zhong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2021.339131","article-title":"A sensitive electrochemical method for rapid detection of dengue virus by CRISPR\/Cas13a-assisted catalytic hairpin assembly","volume":"1187","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"(2025, November 25). What Is a Colorimeter? Definition, Working & Key Advantages. Available online: https:\/\/www.prestogroup.com\/blog\/what-is-a-colorimeter-definition-working-advantages\/."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"(2025, November 25). Fundamentals of Colorimetry|IntechOpen. Available online: https:\/\/www.intechopen.com\/chapters\/87730."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Wei, J. (2025, November 25). 6 Advantages of Surface Plasmon Resonance Technology. Affinite Instruments. Available online: https:\/\/www.affiniteinstruments.com\/post\/6-advantages-of-surface-plasmon-resonance-technology."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8423","DOI":"10.1007\/s11468-025-02890-z","article-title":"Plasmonic Ring Resonator-Based Sensors: Design, Performance, and Applications","volume":"20","author":"Mallika","year":"2025","journal-title":"Plasmonics"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1038\/s43586-021-00083-6","article-title":"Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy","volume":"1","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Methods Prim."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtnano.2019.100039","article-title":"Recent advantages of colloidal photonic crystals and their applications for lumnescence enhancement","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Today Nano"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Firouzjaei, A.S., Afghahi, S.S., Valmoozi, A.-A.E., Firouzjaei, A.S., Afghahi, S.S., and Valmoozi, A.-A.E. (2024). Emerging Trends, Applications, and Fabrication Techniques in Photonic Crystal Technology. Recent Advances and Trends in Photonic Crystal Technology, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.1002455"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2022.114628","article-title":"A novel multi-set differential pulse voltammetry technique for improving precision in electrochemical sensing","volume":"216","author":"Kashyap","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116095","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2024.116095","article-title":"Comparative analysis of electrochemical and optical sensors for detection of chronic wounds biomarkers: A review","volume":"251","author":"Mota","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112949","article-title":"Faradaic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy for enhanced analyte detection in diagnostics","volume":"177","author":"Strong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"(2025, November 25). Microfluidic Point-of-Care (POC) Devices in Early Diagnosis: A Review of Opportunities and Challenges\u2014PMC, Available online: https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC8875995\/."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.2478\/abm-2023-0068","article-title":"Lateral flow assay: A promising rapid point-of-care testing tool for infections and non-communicable diseases","volume":"17","author":"Vealan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Asian Biomed."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112355","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3443299","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence-Based Early Detection of Dengue Using CBC Data","volume":"12","author":"Riya","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5588127","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/5588127","article-title":"Support Vector Machine Outperforms Other Machine Learning Models in Early Diagnosis of Dengue Using Routine Clinical Data","volume":"2024","author":"Qaiser","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Virol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.18196\/jrc.v3i3.14387","article-title":"Early Diagnosis for Dengue Disease Prediction Using Efficient Machine Learning Techniques Based on Clinical Data","volume":"3","author":"Abdualgalil","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Robot. Control (JRC)"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iqbal, N., and Islam, M. (2019). Machine learning for dengue outbreak prediction: A performance evaluation of different prominent classifiers. Informatica, 43.","DOI":"10.31449\/inf.v43i3.1548"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.22201\/icat.24486736e.2024.22.5.2422","article-title":"Comparison of machine learning algorithms for dengue virus (DENV) classification","volume":"22","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Appl. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, T.-S., Weng, T.-C., Wang, J.-D., Han, H.-C., Cheng, H.-C., Yang, C.-C., Yu, C.-H., Liu, Y.-J., Hu, C.H., and Huang, C.-Y. (2020). Comparing machine learning with case-control models to identify confirmed dengue cases. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008843"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.htct.2023.09.2365","article-title":"Machine-learning prediction models for any blood component transfusion in hospitalized dengue patients","volume":"46","author":"Ansari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hematol. Transfus. Cell Ther."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e985","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.985","article-title":"Diagnosis of dengue virus infection using spectroscopic images and deep learning","volume":"8","author":"Hassan","year":"2022","journal-title":"PeerJ Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e16634","article-title":"A machine learning model to assess potential misdiagnosed dengue hospitalization","volume":"9","author":"Santos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"(2025, November 26). All Imputation Techniques with Pros and Cons. Available online: https:\/\/kaggle.com\/code\/azminetoushikwasi\/all-imputation-techniques-with-pros-and-cons."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"(2025, November 26). ReplaceMissingValues. Available online: https:\/\/weka.sourceforge.io\/doc.dev\/weka\/filters\/unsupervised\/attribute\/ReplaceMissingValues.html."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2023.135210","article-title":"A centrifugal microfluidic system for automated detection of multiple heavy metal ions by aptamer-based colorimetric assay","volume":"403","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/1\/145\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]],"date-time":"2025-12-25T23:55:24Z","timestamp":1766706924000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/1\/145"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]},"references-count":114,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s26010145"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26010145","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]}}}