{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T15:09:30Z","timestamp":1777734570736,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Federal Ministry for Research, Technology, and Aeronautics of Germany","award":["16SV9236"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16SV9236"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Facial palsy (FP) impairs voluntary control of facial muscles, resulting in facial asymmetry and difficulties in emotional expression. Traditional assessment methods to define the severity of FP (e.g., House\u2013Brackmann score, HB) rely on visual examinations and, therefore, are highly examiner-dependent. This study proposes an alternative approach using facial surface electromyography (EMG) for automated HB prediction. Time-domain EMG features were extracted during different facial movements (i.e., smile, close eyes, and raise forehead) and analyzed through nine different machine learning (ML) models in 58 subjects (51.98 \u00b1 1.67 years, 20 male) with variable facial nerve function (HB 1: n = 16, HB 2\u20133: n = 32; HB 4\u20136: n = 10). Model performances were evaluated based on accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score. Among the evaluated models, ensemble-based approaches\u2014particularly a random forest model with 100 trees and a decision tree ensemble\u2014proved to be the most effective with classification accuracies ranging from 81.7 to 84.8% and from 81.7 to 84.7%, depending on the evaluated facial movement. The results indicate that ensemble-based ML models can reliably distinguish between different FP grades using non-invasive EMG data. The approach offers a robust alternative to subjective clinical scoring, potentially improving diagnostic consistency and supporting longitudinal monitoring in clinical and research applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26010173","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T00:50:42Z","timestamp":1766969442000},"page":"173","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Automated Neuromuscular Assessment: Machine-Learning-Based Facial Palsy Classification Using Surface Electromyography"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Ibrahim","family":"Manzoor","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery and Neurotechnology, Eberhard Karls University, Hoppe-Seyler-Stra\u00dfe 3, 72076 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aryana","family":"Popescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery and Neurotechnology, Eberhard Karls University, Hoppe-Seyler-Stra\u00dfe 3, 72076 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Ricchizzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery and Neurotechnology, Eberhard Karls University, Hoppe-Seyler-Stra\u00dfe 3, 72076 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aldo","family":"Spolaore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery and Neurotechnology, Eberhard Karls University, Hoppe-Seyler-Stra\u00dfe 3, 72076 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mykola","family":"Gorbachuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery and Neurotechnology, Eberhard Karls University, Hoppe-Seyler-Stra\u00dfe 3, 72076 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marcos","family":"Tatagiba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery and Neurotechnology, Eberhard Karls University, Hoppe-Seyler-Stra\u00dfe 3, 72076 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4807-6234","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgios","family":"Naros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery and Neurotechnology, Eberhard Karls University, Hoppe-Seyler-Stra\u00dfe 3, 72076 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kathrin","family":"Machetanz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery and Neurotechnology, Eberhard Karls University, Hoppe-Seyler-Stra\u00dfe 3, 72076 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Walker, N.R., Mistry, R.K., and Mazzoni, T. 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