{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,3]],"date-time":"2026-01-03T05:23:18Z","timestamp":1767417798649,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000006","name":"Office of Naval Research","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000006","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Atmospheric turbulence significantly degrades the performance of High Energy Laser (HEL) systems by distorting the laser wavefront as it propagates through the atmosphere. Conventional correction techniques rely on Adaptive Optics (AO), which preserve beam quality at the object. However, AO systems require wavefront sensors, such as Shack\u2013Hartmann, and a reference beam, increasing system complexity and cost. This work presents a Deep Learning (DL)-based wavefront sensing approach that operates directly on scene imagery, thereby eliminating the need for dedicated wavefront sensors and a reference beam. A DL model was trained to predict wavefront distortions, represented by Zernike coefficients, from aberrated imagery of the Reaper Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). Reaper imagery utilized in training was aberrated at different levels of turbulence, D\/r0, with D=30 cm being the aperture diameter of a telescope capturing the object scene and r0=3,\u00a05,\u00a07 cm the Fried parameter that defines weak turbulence for higher values and strong turbulence for lower values. The proposed model, trained across all these turbulence levels, outperformed models trained on a single level by providing superior accuracy and offering practical advantages for deployment. The model also demonstrated strong generalization capabilities for two practical scenarios: (a) Reaper imagery with turbulence levels beyond the training range, and (b) Mongoose UAV imagery not included in the training set. The model predicts turbulence accurately in both cases. The results confirm that if the model is trained for a UAV model for a certain turbulence level, it provides accurate predictions for turbulence levels outside its training range and for other UAV aberrated images.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26010268","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T09:56:23Z","timestamp":1767347783000},"page":"268","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Deep Learning Wavefront Sensing from Object Scene for Directed Energy HEL Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8989-0617","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo","family":"Herrera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Naval Postgraduate School, 1 University Circle, Monterey, CA 93943, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicholas","family":"Messina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Naval Postgraduate School, 1 University Circle, Monterey, CA 93943, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Brij N.","family":"Agrawal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Naval Postgraduate School, 1 University Circle, Monterey, CA 93943, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1086\/126606","article-title":"The possibility of compensating atmospheric seeing","volume":"65","author":"Babcock","year":"1953","journal-title":"Publ. 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