{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T02:17:56Z","timestamp":1791944276995,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,4]],"date-time":"2026-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767484800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42071343"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42071343"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Science and Technology Plan","award":["2025YFDZ0113"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025YFDZ0113"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traffic sign detection under adverse weather conditions remains challenging due to severe feature degradation caused by rain, fog, and snow, which significantly impairs the performance of existing detection systems. This study presents the CW-DETR (Complex Weather Detection Transformer), an end-to-end detection framework designed to address weather-induced feature deterioration in real-time applications. Building upon the RT-DETR, our approach integrates four key innovations: a multipath feature enhancement network (FPFENet) for preserving fine-grained textures, a Multiscale Edge Enhancement Module (MEEM) for combating boundary degradation, an adaptive dual-stream bidirectional feature pyramid network (ADBF-FPN) for cross-scale feature compensation, and a multiscale convolutional gating module (MCGM) for suppressing semantic\u2013spatial confusion. Extensive experiments on the CCTSDB2021 dataset demonstrate that the CW-DETR achieves 69.0% AP and 94.4% AP50, outperforming state-of-the-art real-time detectors by 2.3\u20135.7 percentage points while maintaining computational efficiency (56.8 GFLOPs). A cross-dataset evaluation on TT100K, the TSRD, CNTSSS, and real-world snow conditions (LNTU-TSD) confirms the robust generalization capabilities of the proposed model. These results establish CW-DETR as an effective solution for all-weather traffic sign detection in intelligent transportation systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26010325","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T10:53:50Z","timestamp":1767610430000},"page":"325","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["CW-DETR: An Efficient Detection Transformer for Traffic Signs in Complex Weather"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Tianpeng","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Institute of Geospatial Information Service, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8512-2055","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qiaoshuang","family":"Teng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Institute of Geospatial Information Service, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3987-6332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shangyu","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Institute of Geospatial Information Service, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weidong","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Institute of Geospatial Information Service, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinhe","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Institute of Geospatial Information Service, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuxuan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Institute of Geospatial Information Service, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10551","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2024.3360408","article-title":"Transformer fusion and residual learning group classifier loss for long-tailed traffic sign detection","volume":"24","author":"Zeng","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors J."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Kenk, M.A., and Hassaballah, M. 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