{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T22:45:44Z","timestamp":1781736344364,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767830400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42230109"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42230109"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Yunling Scholar Project of the \u201cXingdian Talent Support Program\u201d of Yunnan Province","award":["202221002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202221002"]}]},{"name":"Platform Construction Project of High-Level Talent in the Kunming University of Science and Technology","award":["7202221001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["7202221001"]}]},{"name":"Ministry-Provincial Cooperation Pilot Project","award":["2023ZRBSHZ048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023ZRBSHZ048"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Rainfall-induced landslides are a widespread and destructive geological hazard that resist precise prediction. They pose serious threats to human lives and property, ecological stability, and socioeconomic development. Methods: To address the challenges in mitigating rainfall-induced landslides in high-altitude mountainous regions, this study proposes a digital twin framework that couples multiple physical fields and is based on the spherical discrete element method. Results: Two-dimensional simulations identify a trapezoidal stress distribution with inward-increasing stress. The stress increases uniformly from 0 kPa at the surface to 210 kPa in the interior. The crest stress remains constant at 1.8 kPa under gravity, whereas the toe stress rises from 6.5 to 14.8 kPa with the slope gradient. While the stress pattern persists post-failure, specific magnitudes alter significantly. This study pioneers a three-dimensional close-packed spherical discrete element method, achieving enhanced computational efficiency and stability through streamlined contact mechanics. Conclusions: The proposed framework utilizes point-contact mechanics to simplify friction modeling, enhancing computational efficiency and numerical stability. By integrating stress, rainfall, and seepage fields, we establish a coupled hydro-mechanical model that enables real-time digital twin mapping of landslide evolution through dynamic parameter adjustments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26020421","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T08:09:06Z","timestamp":1767946146000},"page":"421","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Digital Twin Modeling for Landslide Risk Scenarios in Mountainous Regions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0830-4356","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lai","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Land and Resources Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan International Joint Laboratory for Integrated Sky-Ground Intelligent Monitoring of Mountain Hazards, Kunming 650093, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1918-5346","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bohui","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Land and Resources Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan International Joint Laboratory for Integrated Sky-Ground Intelligent Monitoring of Mountain Hazards, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environment Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-3236-1031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fangliang","family":"Cai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Land and Resources Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan International Joint Laboratory for Integrated Sky-Ground Intelligent Monitoring of Mountain Hazards, Kunming 650093, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lei","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Land and Resources Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan International Joint Laboratory for Integrated Sky-Ground Intelligent Monitoring of Mountain Hazards, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan Institute of Geo-Environment Monitoring, Kunming 650216, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9256-5644","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinming","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Land and Resources Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan International Joint Laboratory for Integrated Sky-Ground Intelligent Monitoring of Mountain Hazards, Kunming 650093, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4604-176X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dong","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Land and Resources Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing, Kunming 650093, China"},{"name":"Yunnan International Joint Laboratory for Integrated Sky-Ground Intelligent Monitoring of Mountain Hazards, Kunming 650093, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"507","article-title":"Digital twin space and its applications: Concurrent discussion on the space reconstruction of geographical resear","volume":"77","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Geogr. 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