{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T02:19:38Z","timestamp":1784686778420,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769817600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research","award":["PNC0000007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNC0000007"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Patient engagement and mental workload (MWL) are often overlooked when optimising robotic-assisted rehabilitation, despite their potential impact on its effectiveness. This study aims to propose a multimodal approach to assess MWL and engagement, using electrophysiological signals and questionnaires, to explore their modulation across different assistance modalities and engaging strategies. Thirty healthy subjects were enrolled and performed repetitive upper-limb movements with a robotic device under three assistance modalities (active, passive, semi-assisted) while listening to a 1 Hz auditory stimulus (metronome or music). Electroencephalography, Electrocardiogram, the NASA Task Load Index, and the Short Stress State Questionnaire were used to assess objective and perceived MWL and engagement. Engagement increased significantly in the music condition, whereas MWL showed no significant change. The passive modality was perceived as significantly less demanding and less engaging compared to active and semi-assisted conditions. Although EEG objective indicators did not vary across modalities, the ECG objective metric was modulated significantly in agreement with the subjective measures. Overall, the auditory stimulus significantly influenced engagement, and assistance levels affected both perceived mental demand and engagement. The proposed multimodal approach is sensitive to both engagement and MWL constructs, highlighting the potential for adaptive rehabilitation systems designed to maintain engagement, prevent overload or monotony, and ultimately support better functional outcomes over the long term of robotic training.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26030922","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T10:48:01Z","timestamp":1770115681000},"page":"922","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Multimodal Evaluation of Mental Workload and Engagement in Upper-Limb Robot-Assisted Motor Tasks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5183-1634","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Camilla","family":"Zanco","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9578-4586","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Mondellini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Milan, 20123 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council, 23900 Lecco, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4256-7606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo Lavit","family":"Nicora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council, 23900 Lecco, Italy"},{"name":"Rehabilia Technologies SRL, 20123 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4961-376X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Malosio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council, 23900 Lecco, Italy"},{"name":"Rehabilia Technologies SRL, 20123 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1713-9215","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Tauro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council, 23900 Lecco, Italy"},{"name":"Rehabilia Technologies SRL, 20123 Milano, Italy"},{"name":"Industrial Engineering Department, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6341-1304","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanna","family":"Rizzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3358-7111","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfonso","family":"Mastropietro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, National Research Council, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2529","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000143153.76460.7d","article-title":"Effects of augmented exercise therapy time after stroke: A meta-analysis","volume":"35","author":"Kwakkel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1080\/17483107.2020.1807621","article-title":"Repetitions, duration and intensity of upper limb practice following the implementation of robot assisted therapy with sub-acute stroke survivors: An observational study","volume":"17","author":"Flynn","year":"2022","journal-title":"Disabil. 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