{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T20:45:53Z","timestamp":1770756353585,"version":"3.50.0"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770681600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Horizon EU research and innovation programme","award":["101120732"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101120732"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Operating an aerial vehicle in a confined space, such as a vessel ballast tank, is a major challenge in terms of localization, perception, and control due to limited visibility, constrained maneuvering space, and the absence of reliable (if any) GNSS signals. This paper addresses the design considerations for a quadcopter in confined spaces, focusing on a novel perception system using 12 VL53L8CX time-of-flight (ToF) sensors from STMicroelectronics. These sensors are used for enhanced perception and collision avoidance while flying in confined spaces, making them a suitable alternative to bulky LiDAR systems, reducing weight, cost, and required computational power. These sensors are placed strategically around the quadcopter to cover 360\u00b0 radial view within a 4 m range. Experiments are conducted to test the reliability and repeatability of the integrated system, along with its synchronization feature. Furthermore, the applicability is verified by flying in confined and cluttered spaces, both in simulation and the real world. This design and study aims to establish a baseline for lightweight, compact, and safe navigation for small drones in confined and featureless environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26041140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T15:23:14Z","timestamp":1770736994000},"page":"1140","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Design and Implementation of a Low-Cost Perception System for Aerial Robots in Confined Spaces"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6798-6361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susan","family":"Basnet","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Photonics Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9375-7285","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jens Christian","family":"Andersen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Photonics Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9919-5746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evangelos","family":"Boukas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Photonics Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Fundamental concepts of deck cargo handling and transportation safety","volume":"98","author":"Melnyk","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. 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