{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T19:05:48Z","timestamp":1790363148712,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770768000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R831527"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R831527"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000245","name":"Michael Smith Health Research BC","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R599273"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R599273"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000245","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Current diagnostic modalities for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and ultrasound (US), excel at visualizing structural pathology but are either resource-intensive or often limited to morphological assessment. In this work, we present the design and technical validation of a low-cost continuous-wave near-infrared (NIR) dual-mode optical probe for functional monitoring of joint inflammation. Unlike superficial imaging, NIR light penetrates approximately 3\u20135 cm and is tissue and wavelength dependent, enabling trans-illumination of the synovial volume. The system combines reflectance and transmission geometries to resolve the ambiguity between disease presence and disease severity. To validate the diagnostic logic, we employed mcxyzn Monte Carlo (MC) simulations to model the optical signature of RA progression from early onset to EULAR-OMERACT grade 2 pannus hypertrophy on a simplified finger model, based on several tissue models in the literature and supported by physical measurements on a multilayer silicone phantom and in vivo signal verification on human volunteers. Our results demonstrate a distinct functional dichotomy: reflectance geometry serves as a binary discriminator of synovial turbidity onset, while transmission flux serves as a monotonic proxy for pannus volume, exhibiting a quantifiable signal decay consistent with the Beer\u2013Lambert law. Signal verification on a subject with confirmed RA pathology demonstrated a significant increase in the effective attenuation coefficient (\u00b5eff\u00a0~\u00a00.59 mm\u22121) compared to the healthy baseline (\u00b5eff\u00a0~\u00a00.47\u00a0 mm\u22121). Furthermore, simulation analysis revealed a critical \u201cmetric inversion\u201d in darker skin phenotypes (Fitzpatrick V\u2013VI), where the standard beam-broadening signature of inflammation is artificially suppressed by epidermal absorption. We conclude that while transmission flux remains a robust grading metric across diverse skin tones, morphological beam-shape metrics are not robust, particularly in high-absorption populations. By targeting the hemodynamic precursors of structural damage, this dual-mode probe design offers a potential pathway for longitudinal, quantitative monitoring of disease activity at the point of care, while the systematic use of the Monte Carlo framework provides insight into the measurement geometry most suitable for a given clinical endpoint, whether that be detecting the presence or severity of rheumatoid arthritis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26041179","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T17:45:36Z","timestamp":1770831936000},"page":"1179","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Dual-Mode Near-Infrared Optical Probe and Monte Carlo Framework for Functional Monitoring of Rheumatoid Arthritis: Addressing Diagnostic Ambiguity and Skin Tone Robustness"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Parmveer","family":"Atwal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechatronic Systems Engineering, Simon Fraser University, Surrey, BC V3T 0A3, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Medical Physics, BC Cancer\u2014Abbotsford, Abbotsford, BC V2S 0C2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ryley","family":"McWilliams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechatronic Systems Engineering, Simon Fraser University, Surrey, BC V3T 0A3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramani","family":"Ramaseshen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechatronic Systems Engineering, Simon Fraser University, Surrey, BC V3T 0A3, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Medical Physics, BC Cancer\u2014Abbotsford, Abbotsford, BC V2S 0C2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Farid","family":"Golnaraghi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechatronic Systems Engineering, Simon Fraser University, Surrey, BC V3T 0A3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/49\/7\/005","article-title":"Sagittal laser optical tomography for imaging of rheumatoid finger joints","volume":"49","author":"Hielscher","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. 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