{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:09:33Z","timestamp":1787029773477,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771891200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","award":["4244109"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4244109"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Eye tracking in virtual reality (VR) head-mounted displays poses substantial engineering challenges, particularly under immersive display configurations with large fields of view (FOV), where optical layout, illumination, and image acquisition impose nontrivial system constraints. To address these design constraints, we present an integrated near-eye eye-tracking prototype tailored for immersive VR headsets, combining customized hardware components and a real-time software pipeline. The proposed system integrates optimized near-eye illumination and image acquisition with a pupil detection module and a deep learning-based gaze-vector estimation model, forming a real-time software pipeline for stable end-to-end gaze mapping under fixed calibration conditions. Under identical system settings, calibration procedures, and gaze-point mapping conditions, we evaluate the proposed gaze-vector estimation model through a controlled model-level ablation. The attention-enhanced model achieves an average angular deviation of 1.15\u00b0, corresponding to a 61.4% relative reduction compared with a baseline ResNet-152 model without attention. To demonstrate the usability of the system outputs at the application level, we further implement a real-time visualization example that integrates pupil diameter, gaze vectors, and blink events to depict the temporal evolution of eye-movement signals. This work provides a cost-effective and reproducible engineering reference for near-eye eye-movement acquisition and visualization in immersive VR settings and serves as a technical foundation for subsequent interaction design or behavioral analysis studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26051402","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T08:54:56Z","timestamp":1771923296000},"page":"1402","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Comprehensive Eye-Tracking System Toward Large FOV HMD"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-1216-5282","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiafu","family":"Lv","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Media Convergence and Communication, Communication University of China, Beijing 100024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Di","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Data Science and Media Intelligence, Communication University of China, Beijing 100024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ke","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Media Convergence and Communication, Communication University of China, Beijing 100024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qi","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Optics Department, IMT Atlantique, 29238 Brest, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sanxing","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Media Convergence and Communication, Communication University of China, Beijing 100024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-022-00738-z","article-title":"Eye tracking in virtual reality: A broad review of applications and challenges","volume":"27","author":"Adhanom","year":"2023","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-023-00903-y","article-title":"Eye-tracking on virtual reality: A survey","volume":"28","author":"Jurado","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s41095-022-0306-4","article-title":"Foveated rendering: A state-of-the-art survey","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. 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