{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T12:14:32Z","timestamp":1793362472537,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772150400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012190","name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FZZE-2023-0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FZZE-2023-0004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012190","name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FZZE-2026-0006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FZZE-2026-0006"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012190","name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["122052000072-5"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["122052000072-5"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012190","name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["075-GZ\/C3569\/278"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["075-GZ\/C3569\/278"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006769","name":"Russian Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["25-12-00059"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["25-12-00059"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006769","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The 12 November 2025 G4 geomagnetic storm\u2014the third most intense of solar cycle 25\u2014was triggered by a complex shock-ICME (interplanetary coronal mass ejection) structure as a result of three ICMEs and driven shocks that arrived on 11\u201312 November. The main enhancement in the interplanetary magnetic field occurred in the sheath region behind the shock driven by the second ICME. The Dst index reached \u2212217 nT (the SYM-H index reached \u2212254 nT) and the maximum Kp index was 9-. To comprehensively analyze the causes of the storm and its complex effects on near-Earth space, we used a multi-instrumental data set, involving data from satellite missions (ACE, SDO, PROBA2), GNSS networks, ionosondes, optical instruments, high-frequency radars (SuperDARN-like), and cosmic ray monitors. The auroral oval expanded equatorward (down to ~35\u00b0 N in America). We recorded a super equatorial plasma bubble that almost reached the auroral oval boundary. The equatorial anomaly crests intensified, exceeding 175 TECU, and shifted poleward (8\u201310\u00b0). At mid-latitudes, the F2 layer critical frequency exhibited a strong negative disturbance (\u221250%) during the main phase, followed by an unusually prolonged and intense positive phase (+100%). GPS Precise Point Positioning errors increased to 2\u20133 m at high latitudes and in regions affected by the equatorial bubble. The event also featured a Forbush decrease and ground-level enhancement (GLE 77 according to the database hosted by the University of Oulu) associated with the X5.1 solar flare. The results underscore the complex chain of processes from solar storm to geomagnetic and ionospheric responses, highlighting the risks to satellite-based navigation and communication systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26051490","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T10:41:02Z","timestamp":1772188862000},"page":"1490","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["The 12 November 2025 Ugly Duckling Geomagnetic Storm: From the Sun to the Earth"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3098-224X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yury","family":"Yasyukevich","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"},{"name":"Faculty of Physics, Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk 664003, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7370-3419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ekaterina","family":"Danilchuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"},{"name":"Faculty of Physics, Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk 664003, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8312-5487","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandr","family":"Beletsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-8592-8486","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Egor","family":"Borvenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4692-9643","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandr","family":"Chernyshov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Space Research Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117997, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victor","family":"Fainshtein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5804-4511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vera","family":"Ivanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-2857-4333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Denis","family":"Khabituev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9497-5823","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marina","family":"Kravtsova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1120-870X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexey","family":"Oinats","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergey","family":"Olemskoy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0190-2140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artem","family":"Padokhin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia"},{"name":"Pushkov Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, Ionosphere and Radio Wave Propagation of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 108840, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0847-3553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantin","family":"Ratovsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valery","family":"Sdobnov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8907-2710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artem","family":"Vesnin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8456-1697","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Yasyukevich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergey","family":"Yazev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk 664033, Russia"},{"name":"Faculty of Physics, Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk 664003, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"209","article-title":"Effects of Geomagnetic Storms on the Ionosphere and Atmosphere","volume":"2","author":"Danilov","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Geomagn. Aeron."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005RG000193","DOI":"10.1029\/2005RG000193","article-title":"Storms in the Ionosphere: Patterns and Processes for Total Electron Content","volume":"44","author":"Mendillo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cander, L.R. (2019). Ionospheric Storm Morphology. Ionospheric Space Weather; Springer Geophysics, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-99331-7"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1982.12313","article-title":"Radio Wave Scintillations in the Ionosphere","volume":"70","author":"Yeh","year":"1982","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"68","article-title":"Space Weather Impact on Ground-Based Technological Systems","volume":"7","author":"Pilipenko","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"37","article-title":"Space Weather Impact on Radio Device Operation","volume":"3","author":"Berngardt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"28","article-title":"Space Weather: Risk Factors for Global Navigation Satellite Systems","volume":"7","author":"Demyanov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, X., Gu, S., Lou, Y., Xiong, C., Chen, B., and Jin, X. (2018). Assessing the Performance of GPS Precise Point Positioning Under Different Geomagnetic Storm Conditions during Solar Cycle 24. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18061784"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1007\/1-4020-2754-0_15","article-title":"Space Weather Effects on Power Transmission Systems: The Cases of Hydro-Qu\u00e9bec and Transpower New ZealandLtd","volume":"Volume 176","author":"Daglis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Effects of Space Weather on Technology Infrastructure"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s13198-020-01003-9","article-title":"Space Weather Climate Impacts on Railway Infrastructure","volume":"11","author":"Thaduri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Assur. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1014293527951","article-title":"Propagation of the Bastille Day 2000 CME Shock in the Outer Heliosphere","volume":"204","author":"Wang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A9","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2016004","article-title":"Overview of the 2015 St. Patrick\u2019s Day Storm and Its Consequences for RTK and PPP Positioning in Norway","volume":"6","author":"Jacobsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Space Weather Space Clim."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2004GL021475","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL021475","article-title":"The October 28, 2003 Extreme EUV Solar Flare and Resultant Extreme Ionospheric Effects: Comparison to Other Halloween Events and the Bastille Day Event","volume":"32","author":"Tsurutani","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2004SW000123","DOI":"10.1029\/2004SW000123","article-title":"Geomagnetic Storm of 29\u201331 October 2003: Geomagnetically Induced Currents and Their Relation to Problems in the Swedish High-voltage Power Transmission System","volume":"3","author":"Pulkkinen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-4357\/aac204","article-title":"Why the Shock-ICME Complex Structure Is Important: Learning from the Early 2017 September CMEs","volume":"861","author":"Shen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Astrophys. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruffa, J.A., Bay, M., Ward, D.K., Gonzales, P.J., Bartusek, L.M., and Pesnell, W.D. (2012). NASA\u2019s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO): A Systems Approach to a Complex Mission. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, MT, USA, 3\u201310 March 2012, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/AERO.2012.6187017"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2005.03.070","article-title":"SWAP Onboard PROBA 2, a New EUV Imager for Solar Monitoring","volume":"38","author":"Berghmans","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2004JA010649","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JA010649","article-title":"Solar Wind Spatial Scales in and Comparisons of Hourly Wind and ACE Plasma and Magnetic Field Data","volume":"110","author":"King","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-020-00983-2","article-title":"SIMuRG: System for Ionosphere Monitoring and Research from GNSS","volume":"24","author":"Yasyukevich","year":"2020","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2283","DOI":"10.1029\/97GL02273","article-title":"Monitoring of Global Ionospheric Irregularities Using the Worldwide GPS Network","volume":"24","author":"Pi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-022-01708-0","article-title":"ROTI Keograms Based on CMONOC to Characterize the Ionospheric Irregularities in 2014","volume":"74","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1007\/s11141-023-10230-6","article-title":"Phase-Difference Approach for GNSS Global Ionospheric Total Electron Content Mapping","volume":"65","author":"Padokhin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Radiophys. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-021-01483-y","article-title":"Influence of Temporal Resolution on the Performance of Global Ionospheric Maps","volume":"95","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-017-1088-9","article-title":"Consistency of Seven Different GNSS Global Ionospheric Mapping Techniques during One Solar Cycle","volume":"92","author":"Krankowski","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-008-0300-3","article-title":"The International GNSS Service in a Changing Landscape of Global Navigation Satellite Systems","volume":"83","author":"Dow","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-018-0699-9","article-title":"GAMP: An Open-Source Software of Multi-GNSS Precise Point Positioning Using Undifferenced and Uncombined Observations","volume":"22","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2007.03.008","article-title":"Case Studies of Height Structure of TID Propagation Characteristics Using Cross-Correlation Analysis of Incoherent Scatter Radar and DPS-4 Ionosonde Data","volume":"41","author":"Ratovsky","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012067","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/632\/1\/012067","article-title":"Present State of Cosmic Ray Stations of the Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics of Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (ISTP SB RAS)","volume":"632","author":"Lukovnikova","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"84","article-title":"Scientific Goals of Optical Instruments of the National Heliogeophysical Complex","volume":"6","author":"Vasilyev","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"63","article-title":"ISTP SB RAS Decameter Radars","volume":"6","author":"Berngardt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Clette, F., and Lef\u00e8vre, L. (SILSO Sunspot Number, 2015). SILSO Sunspot Number, V2.0."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-009-9382-1","article-title":"Relation Between Type II Bursts and CMEs Inferred from STEREO Observations","volume":"259","author":"Gopalswamy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Papitashvili, N.E., and King, J.H. (2026, February 24). OMNI 5-Min Data Set. Space Physics Data Facility. Available online: https:\/\/spase-metadata.org\/NASA\/NumericalData\/OMNI\/HighResolutionObservations\/Version1\/PT5M."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23397","DOI":"10.1029\/95JA02684","article-title":"Regions of Abnormally Low Proton Temperature in the Solar Wind (1965\u20131991) and Their Association with Ejecta","volume":"100","author":"Richardson","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1134\/S0010952509020014","article-title":"Catalog of Large-Scale Solar Wind Phenomena during 1976\u20132000","volume":"47","author":"Yermolaev","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cosm. Res"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-010-9568-6","article-title":"Near-Earth Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections During Solar Cycle 23 (1996\u20132009): Catalog and Summary of Properties","volume":"264","author":"Richardson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020SW002641","DOI":"10.1029\/2020SW002641","article-title":"The Geomagnetic Kp Index and Derived Indices of Geomagnetic Activity","volume":"19","author":"Matzka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Sugiura, M. (1964). Hourly Values of Equatorial Dst for the IGY, Pergamon Press. Annals of the International Geophysical Year."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005JA011034","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JA011034","article-title":"High-resolution Global Storm Index: Dst versus SYM-H","volume":"111","author":"Wanliss","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7695","DOI":"10.1029\/92JA02269","article-title":"Spectrometric and Photometric Observations of Low-latitude Aurorae","volume":"98","author":"Rassoul","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"66","article-title":"Mid-Latitude Aurora in Solar Cycles 23\u201324 from Observations in the South of Eastern Siberia","volume":"5","author":"Mikhalev","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1134\/S0016793218030064","article-title":"Empirical Model of the Location of the Main Ionospheric Trough","volume":"58","author":"Deminov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geomagn. Aeron."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2024SW004111","DOI":"10.1029\/2024SW004111","article-title":"The Mother\u2019s Day Geomagnetic Storm on 10 May 2024: Aurora Observations and Low Latitude Space Weather Effects in Mexico","volume":"22","author":"Sergeeva","year":"2024","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1002105","article-title":"Super Equatorial Plasma Bubbles Observed Over South America During the October 10 and 11, 2024 Strong Geomagnetic Storm","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9023","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JA021629","article-title":"Ionospheric Response to the 2015 St. Patrick\u2019s Day Storm: A Global Multi-instrumental Overview","volume":"120","author":"Astafyeva","year":"2015","journal-title":"JGR Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1134\/S1028334X24604978","article-title":"Extreme Magnetic Storm of May 10\u201319, 2024: Coupling Between Neutral and Charged Components of the Upper Atmosphere and the Effect on Radio Systems","volume":"520","author":"Yasyukevich","year":"2025","journal-title":"Dokl. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-015-0316-x","article-title":"Dependence of the High-Latitude Plasma Irregularities on the Auroral Activity Indices: A Case Study of 17 March 2015 Geomagnetic Storm","volume":"67","author":"Cherniak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Planet Space"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JA023352","article-title":"Analysis of the Global Ionospheric Disturbances of the March 2015 Great Storm","volume":"121","author":"Yao","year":"2016","journal-title":"JGR Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4-1","DOI":"10.1029\/2002GL014770","article-title":"First Observations of Intense GPS L1 Amplitude Scintillations at Midlatitude","volume":"29","author":"Ledvina","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1029\/RS020i004p00923","article-title":"Spectral Behavior of Phase Scintillation in the Nighttime Auroral Region","volume":"20","author":"Fremouw","year":"1985","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2025.02.015","article-title":"Effects in the Upper Atmosphere and Ionosphere in the Subauroral Region during Victory Day 2024 Geomagnetic Storm (May 10\u201312, 2024)","volume":"76","author":"Chernyshov","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danilchuk, E., Yasyukevich, Y., Vesnin, A., Klyusilov, A., and Zhang, B. (2025). Impact of the May 2024 Extreme Geomagnetic Storm on the Ionosphere and GNSS Positioning. Remote Sens., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs17091492"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, X., Aa, E., Wang, X., and Luo, B. (2026). Strong Longitudinal and Latitudinal Differences of Ionospheric Responses in North American and European Sectors During the 10\u201311 October 2024 Geomagnetic Storm. Remote Sens., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs18020256"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6826(00)00179-6","article-title":"Transequatorial F-Region Ionospheric Plasma Bubbles: Solar Cycle Effects","volume":"62","author":"Sahai","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5922","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JA021427","article-title":"Fresh and Evolutionary-type Field-aligned Irregularities Generated near Sunrise Terminator Due to Overshielding Electric Fields","volume":"120","author":"Ajith","year":"2015","journal-title":"JGR Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.26464\/epp2021043","article-title":"Observations of Equatorial Plasma Bubbles during the Geomagnetic Storm of October 2016","volume":"5","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Phys."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2006GL027512","DOI":"10.1029\/2006GL027512","article-title":"A Super Bubble Detected by Dense GPS Network at East Asian Longitudes","volume":"33","author":"Ma","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2025JA033709","DOI":"10.1029\/2025JA033709","article-title":"On Detection of Super Equatorial Plasma Bubbles in the American Sector During the 10\u201311 October 2024 Geomagnetic Storm","volume":"130","author":"Zakharenkova","year":"2025","journal-title":"JGR Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pulinets, S., Kotonaeva, N., Depuev, V., and Tsybulya, K. (2026). Ionospheric Response to the Geomagnetic Storm of 12\u201314 November 2025, Based on Multi-Parameter Analysis of Data from the LAERT Topside Sounder. Atmosphere, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos17020150"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2025.10.093","article-title":"Ionospheric Topside Sounding Revival","volume":"77","author":"Pulinets","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2024EA004152","DOI":"10.1029\/2024EA004152","article-title":"Pre-Sunrise Equatorial Plasma Bubble Over Indonesia During the 11 May 2024 Super Geomagnetic Storm","volume":"12","author":"Suraina","year":"2025","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021SW002891","DOI":"10.1029\/2021SW002891","article-title":"Development of the Storm-Induced Ionospheric Irregularities at Equatorial and Middle Latitudes During the 25\u201326 August 2018 Geomagnetic Storm","volume":"20","author":"Cherniak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, C., Lu, G., Zhang, Y., and Paxton, L.J. (2021). Equatorial Ionization Anomaly Variations During Geomagnetic Storms. Geophysical Monograph Series, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119815617.ch13"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Kelley, M.C. (2009). The Earth\u2019s Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]. International Geophysics Series."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2007JA012879","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JA012879","article-title":"Prompt Penetration Electric Fields (PPEFs) and Their Ionospheric Effects during the Great Magnetic Storm of 30\u201331 October 2003","volume":"113","author":"Tsurutani","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1669","DOI":"10.1029\/JA085iA04p01669","article-title":"The Ionospheric Disturbance Dynamo","volume":"85","author":"Blanc","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhattacharyya, A. (2022). Equatorial Plasma Bubbles: A Review. Atmosphere, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13101637"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2003JA010342","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JA010342","article-title":"Global Dayside Ionospheric Uplift and Enhancement Associated with Interplanetary Electric Fields","volume":"109","author":"Tsurutani","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2004GL021467","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL021467","article-title":"Dayside Global Ionospheric Response to the Major Interplanetary Events of October 29\u201330, 2003 \u201cHalloween Storms\u201d","volume":"32","author":"Mannucci","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JA027681","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JA027681","article-title":"Global View of Ionospheric Disturbance Impacts on Kinematic GPS Positioning Solutions During the 2015 St. Patrick\u2019s Day Storm","volume":"125","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"JGR Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022SW003132","DOI":"10.1029\/2022SW003132","article-title":"The Mechanism for GNSS-Based Kinematic Positioning Degradation at High-Latitudes Under the March 2015 Great Storm","volume":"20","author":"Nie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2025SW004547","DOI":"10.1029\/2025SW004547","article-title":"Impacts of the May 2024 Extreme Geomagnetic Storm on Global High-Accuracy GPS Positioning Solutions","volume":"23","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-021-01166-3","article-title":"Effects of Storm-Induced Equatorial Plasma Bubbles on GPS-Based Kinematic Positioning at Equatorial and Middle Latitudes during the September 7\u20138, 2017, Geomagnetic Storm","volume":"25","author":"Zakharenkova","year":"2021","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JA029843","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JA029843","article-title":"Ionospheric Disturbances and Irregularities During the 25\u201326 August 2018 Geomagnetic Storm","volume":"127","author":"Astafyeva","year":"2022","journal-title":"JGR Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2018.03.022","article-title":"Attenuation of Decameter Wavelength Sky Noise during X-Ray Solar Flares in 2013\u20132017 Based on the Observations of Midlatitude HF Radars","volume":"173","author":"Berngardt","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"14","article-title":"Effects of the May 10\u201313, 2024 Magnetic Storm in the Asian Region of Russia from Ionospheric Sounding with a Continuous Chirp Signal","volume":"11","author":"Ponomarchuk","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nishida, A. (1978). Geomagnetic Diagnosis of the Magnetosphere, Springer. Physics and Chemistry in Space.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-86825-2"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2006.05.027","article-title":"Interplanetary Control of Thermospheric Densities during Large Magnetic Storms","volume":"69","author":"Burke","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/5\/1490\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T10:43:05Z","timestamp":1772188985000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/5\/1490"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s26051490"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26051490","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]]}}}