{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T02:39:58Z","timestamp":1789007998073,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773360000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024YFB2605201"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YFB2605201"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["25CAFUC04060"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["25CAFUC04060"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the continuous elevation of aviation safety standards, accurate monitoring of ground support vehicles in aircraft stand areas has become a critical task for enhancing overall aircraft stand operational safety. Given the limitations of existing surface movement radar and multi-camera surveillance systems in terms of cost, deployment complexity, and coverage, this paper proposes a lightweight vision-based framework for vehicle state perception and spatiotemporal behavior analysis oriented toward aircraft stand safety. Leveraging existing fixed monocular monitoring resources in the stand area, the framework first establishes a precise mapping from image pixel coordinates to the physical plane through self-calibration and homography transformation utilizing scene line features, thereby achieving unified spatial measurement of vehicle targets. Subsequently, it integrates an improved lightweight YOLO detector (incorporating Ghost modules and CBAM for noise suppression) with the ByteTrack tracking algorithm to enable stable extraction of vehicle trajectories under complex occlusion conditions. Finally, by combining functional zone division within the stand, a semantic map is constructed, and a behavior analysis method based on a spatiotemporal finite state machine is proposed. This method performs joint reasoning by fusing multi-dimensional constraints including position, zone, and time, enabling automatic detection of abnormal behaviors such as \u201cintrusion into restricted areas\u201d and \u201cabnormal stop.\u201d Quantitative evaluations demonstrate the framework\u2019s efficacy: it achieves an average physical localization error (RMSE) of 0.32 m, and the improved detection model reaches an accuracy (mAP@50) of 90.4% for ground support vehicles. In tests simulating typical violation scenarios, the system achieved high recall (96.0%) and precision (95.8%) rates in detecting \u2018area intrusion\u2019 and \u2018abnormal stop\u2019 violations, respectively. These results, achieved using only existing surveillance cameras, validate its potential as a cost-effective and easily deployable tool to augment existing safety monitoring systems for airport ground operations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26061821","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T12:59:44Z","timestamp":1773406784000},"page":"1821","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Vision-Based Vehicle State and Behavior Analysis for Aircraft Stand Safety"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1263-904X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ke","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Air Traffic Management, Civil Aviation Flight University of China, Guanghan 618307, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-4445-2386","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liang","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Air Traffic Management, Civil Aviation Flight University of China, Guanghan 618307, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1840-1657","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tianxiong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Software and Multimedia Technology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Dresden, 01187 Dresden, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-7896-6490","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Di","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Air Traffic Management, Civil Aviation Flight University of China, Guanghan 618307, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6088-5608","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenjie","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Air Traffic Management, Civil Aviation Flight University of China, Guanghan 618307, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinping","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Air Traffic Management, Civil Aviation Flight University of China, Guanghan 618307, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"222","article-title":"How organisations can adapt and evolve their safety management systems to foster a culture that prioritises safety at every level","volume":"19","author":"Cabral","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. 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