{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T15:05:22Z","timestamp":1773759922187,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773705600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"JSPS KAKENHI","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JP24K06450"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP24K06450"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Meiji Yasuda Mental Health Foundation Research","award":["2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although evidence exists for android-induced spontaneous facial mimicry, the timing and temporal precedence (Granger causality) of this effect remain uncertain. We used the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) to analyze simultaneous dyadic facial video recordings of participants observing android Nikola\u2019s negative (frowning) and positive (smiling) dynamic facial expressions. Principal component analysis of Nikola\u2019s expressions indicated that, in addition to the action units (AUs) 04 (brow lowerer) and 12 (lip-corner puller), AUs 25 (lips part) and 26 (jaw drop) contributed significantly to Nikola\u2019s facial expressions. Cross-correlation analysis revealed AU04 mimicry of negative expressions and AU12 mimicry of positive expressions from 400 ms onwards. AU25 and AU26 mimicry occurred faster, starting at around 200 ms. Multilevel vector autoregression incorporated the android and participant AUs and quantified the temporal evolution of the Granger causality for the first time. In addition to paired android\u2013human AU04, 12, 25, and 26 effects, significant Granger causality was found between different android\u2013human AU combinations, such as from android AU04 to participant AU25 in the negative condition, and from android AU25 to participant AU12 in the positive condition. These results suggest that the spontaneous facial responses to Nikola\u2019s expressions involved not only motor copying, but also higher-level goal emulation and motor planning in the mirror mechanism, supporting the reliability of the social function of android facial expressions. Cross-correlation and Granger causality analysis can be valuable when further investigating behavioral matching in real-life contexts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26061881","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T12:42:16Z","timestamp":1773751336000},"page":"1881","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Multivariate Timing and Granger Causality Analysis of Spontaneous Facial Mimicry in Response to Android Dynamic Facial Expressions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1829-6642","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chun-Ting","family":"Hsu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychological Process Research Team, Guardian Robot Project, RIKEN, Soraku-gun, Kyoto 619-0288, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4285-8979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Kelbakh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London WC1H 0AP, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3235-704X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dongsheng","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychological Process Research Team, Guardian Robot Project, RIKEN, Soraku-gun, Kyoto 619-0288, Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University, Yoshida-Honmachi, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4071-1352","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takashi","family":"Minato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interactive Robot Research Team, Guardian Robot Project, RIKEN, Soraku-gun, Kyoto 619-0288, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5335-1272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wataru","family":"Sato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychological Process Research Team, Guardian Robot Project, RIKEN, Soraku-gun, Kyoto 619-0288, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Bernieri, F.J., and Rosenthal, R. 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