{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T21:41:26Z","timestamp":1778190086921,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773964800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education and Science","award":["Nds-II\/SP\/0236\/2023\/0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Nds-II\/SP\/0236\/2023\/0"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Gait with external load is an inherent element of military tasks, and the mass of equipment carried by soldiers has systematically increased over recent decades. Depending on the nature of the operation, soldiers may carry loads ranging from several to several dozen kilograms, which may affect gait biomechanics and increase the risk of overload injuries. The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in the spatiotemporal gait parameters of Special Forces Operators depending on the mass and type of the carried external load. Methods: The study included 34 active Special Forces Operators (age: 36.47 \u00b1 5.63 years; height: 180.39 \u00b1 5.72 cm; body mass: 85.92 \u00b1 8.54 kg). Gait analysis was performed using an h\/p\/cosmos gaitway 3D + 1D treadmill equipped with an integrated pressure platform enabling ground reaction force (GRF) measurement. Participants performed gait trials at a speed of 5.5 km\/h under four load conditions: 0 kg, 7 kg, 20 kg, and 27 kg. For each condition, 30 s measurement series were recorded, enabling analysis of a stable locomotion pattern and detection of gait phase events. Results: Statistically significant differences were demonstrated for the following parameters: stance phase, load response, single support, pre-swing, swing phase, double stance, foot rotation, step time, stride length, step width, cycle time, and cadence. The greatest changes were observed between unloaded gait and the condition with a helmet and vest. External load mainly caused prolongation of phases related to support and shortening of the swing phase and single support. Conclusions: Military load significantly modifies the temporal structure of gait in Special Forces Operators even at a constant, relatively low speed. The use of an instrumented treadmill with an integrated pressure platform and GRF measurement, as well as the registration of a large number of gait cycles, enabled the detection of subtle differences in spatiotemporal parameters and reliable assessment of stability and dynamic asymmetry under controlled laboratory conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26061959","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T17:02:43Z","timestamp":1774026163000},"page":"1959","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Changes in Spatiotemporal Parameters During Gait of Special Forces Operators with Additional External Load"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4312-6140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wojciech","family":"Pa\u015bko","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Physical Culture Sciences, Medical College of Rzesz\u00f3w University, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2193-0974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patryk","family":"Marsza\u0142ek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Physical Culture Sciences, Medical College of Rzesz\u00f3w University, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7374-8472","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maciej","family":"\u015ali\u017c","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Physical Culture Sciences, Medical College of Rzesz\u00f3w University, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6750-4316","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Ma\u0107ka\u0142a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Track and Field, Wroclaw University of Health and Sport Sciences, 51-617 Wroclaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8364-6832","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00edntia","family":"Fran\u00e7a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal"},{"name":"LARSyS, Interactive Technologies Institute, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9061-154X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Izabela","family":"Huzarska-Rynasiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Physical Culture Sciences, Medical College of Rzesz\u00f3w University, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7565-7184","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafa\u0142","family":"Podg\u00f3rski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Metabolomics, Faculty of Medicine, Medical College of Rzesz\u00f3w University, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0927-692X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c9lvio R\u00fabio","family":"Gouveia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal"},{"name":"LARSyS, Interactive Technologies Institute, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Center in Sports Science, Health Sciences, and Human Development (CIDESD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"CIPER\u2014Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Human Performance, Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Lisbon, 1649-004 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3283-8516","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dominik","family":"Skiba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiotherapy Dominik Skiba, 39-120 S\u0119dzisz\u00f3w Ma\u0142opolski, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2128-4116","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Przednowek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Physical Culture Sciences, Medical College of Rzesz\u00f3w University, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.7205\/MILMED-D-09-00066","article-title":"Minimal additional weight of combat equipment alters air assault soldiers\u2019 landing biomechanics","volume":"175","author":"Sell","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mil. 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