{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T18:58:49Z","timestamp":1785437929103,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774828800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"German Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["13GW0156G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13GW0156G"]}]},{"award":["13GW0156G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13GW0156G"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04pz7b180","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>(1) Background: Hospitalized preterm infants often require months of vital signs monitoring in the neonatal intensive care unit. Today, wired sensors are essential for survival, but are associated with numerous disadvantages including sensor dislocations, skin trauma and hygiene risks. Non-contact vital sign monitoring would therefore represent a significant improvement in the care of hospitalized neonates. (2) Objective: This study aims to lay the foundation for non-contact radar-based monitoring of the respiratory rate, which could be used in the neonatal intensive care unit. (3) Methods: We developed a radar-based vital parameter monitoring system for recording the respiratory rate of premature infants in a pediatric incubator. The novel system employs a four-channel I\/Q FMCW radar with compact, application-specific antennas optimized to cover the defined area of interest on the infant\u2019s thorax. As a proof-of-principle study, the system was tested in six anesthetized newborn piglets. (4) Results: Using the radar-based system, thorax movements were detected and the respiratory rate was calculated. We observed a high accordance between the signals of respiration detected by the novel radar sensor with the signals of the cable-bound monitor in resting piglets. (5) Conclusions: The novel radar sensor is suited for measuring respiration in the piglet model. In future, the sensor should be optimized in order to improve its robustness against disturbances body movements and in order to allow detection of heartbeat.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26072139","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T08:09:18Z","timestamp":1774944558000},"page":"2139","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Radar-Based Monitoring: A Proof of Principle Study in a Piglet Model for a Novel Approach in Non-Contact Vital Sign Monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1005-4873","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sybelle","family":"Goedicke-Fritz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Pediatrics and Neonatology, Saarland University, Campus Homburg, 66421 Homburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Schmiech","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied Radar Technology and Optical Systems (LaROS), Trier University of Applied Sciences, Schneidershof, 54293 Trier, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0039-003X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ren\u00e9","family":"Thull","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied Radar Technology and Optical Systems (LaROS), Trier University of Applied Sciences, Schneidershof, 54293 Trier, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elisabeth","family":"Kaiser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Pediatrics and Neonatology, Saarland University, Campus Homburg, 66421 Homburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christina","family":"K\u00f6rbel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Clinical and Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7847-8456","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthias W.","family":"Laschke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Clinical and Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aly","family":"Marnach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied Radar Technology and Optical Systems (LaROS), Trier University of Applied Sciences, Schneidershof, 54293 Trier, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon","family":"M\u00fcller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied Radar Technology and Optical Systems (LaROS), Trier University of Applied Sciences, Schneidershof, 54293 Trier, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1866-4492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erol","family":"Tutdibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Pediatrics and Neonatology, Saarland University, Campus Homburg, 66421 Homburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4240-1868","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nasenien","family":"Nourkami-Tutdibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Pediatrics and Neonatology, Saarland University, Campus Homburg, 66421 Homburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Regine","family":"Weber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Pediatrics and Neonatology, Saarland University, Campus Homburg, 66421 Homburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9528-7419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Zemlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Pediatrics and Neonatology, Saarland University, Campus Homburg, 66421 Homburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas R.","family":"Diewald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied Radar Technology and Optical Systems (LaROS), Trier University of Applied Sciences, Schneidershof, 54293 Trier, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semperi.2017.07.009","article-title":"Epidemiology of preterm birth","volume":"41","author":"Purisch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goedicke-Fritz, S., H\u00e4rtel, C., Krasteva-Christ, G., Kopp, M.V., Meyer, S., and Zemlin, M. (2017). Preterm Birth Affects the Risk of Developing Immune-Mediated Diseases. Front. Immunol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01266"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2021.03.006","article-title":"An Immature Science: Intensive Care for Infants Born at <23 Weeks of Gestation","volume":"233","author":"Rysavy","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schuler, R., Bedei, I., Oehmke, F., Zimmer, K.-P., and Ehrhardt, H. (2022). Neonatal Outcome and Treatment Perspectives of Preterm Infants at the Border of Viability. Children, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/children9030313"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2018-316770","article-title":"Active perinatal care of preterm infants in the German Neonatal Network","volume":"105","author":"Humberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1111\/ppe.12770","article-title":"Risk factors for very preterm delivery out of a level III maternity unit: The EPIPAGE-2 cohort study","volume":"35","author":"Desplanches","year":"2021","journal-title":"Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2014.3351","article-title":"Survival and morbidity of preterm children born at 22 through 34 weeks\u2019 gestation in France in 2011","volume":"169","author":"Ancel","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nourkami-Tutdibi, N., Tutdibi, E., Faas, T., Wagenpfeil, G., Draper, E.S., Johnson, S., Cuttini, M., Rafei, R.E., Sepp\u00e4nen, A.-V., and Mazela, J. (2021). Neonatal Morbidity and Mortality in Advanced Aged Mothers. Front. Pediatr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2021.747203"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgan, A.S., Khoshnood, B., Diguisto, C., Foix L\u2019Helias, L., Marchand-Martin, L., Kaminski, M., Zeitlin, J., Br\u00e9art, G., Goffinet, F., and Ancel, P.-Y. (2020). Intensity of perinatal care for extremely preterm babies. BMC Pediatr., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-019-1856-1"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-019-0199-5","article-title":"Non-contact physiological monitoring of preterm infants in the NICU","volume":"2","author":"Villarroel","year":"2019","journal-title":"npj Digit. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Behrman, R.E., Butler, A.S., and Committee on Understanding Premature Birth and Assuring Healthy Outcomes (2024, January 26). Mortality and Acute Complications in Preterm Infants, Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK11385\/."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resuscitation.2019.07.018","article-title":"Novel technologies for heart rate assessment during neonatal resuscitation at birth - A systematic review","volume":"143","author":"Johnson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Resuscitation"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S120","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2015-3373D","article-title":"Part 7: Neonatal Resuscitation: 2015 International Consensus on CPR and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations","volume":"136","author":"Perlman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau0780","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau0780","article-title":"Binodal, wireless epidermal electronic systems with in-sensor analytics for neonatal intensive care","volume":"363","author":"Chung","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0792-9","article-title":"Skin-interfaced biosensors for advanced wireless physiological monitoring in neonatal and pediatric intensive-care units","volume":"26","author":"Chung","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Areekath, L., George, B., Shruthi, P., Sharanya, M., and Sudha, S. (2018). An Electric-Field Based Breathing Rate Monitor. 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA.2018.8438780"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000000705","article-title":"Outcomes for extremely premature infants","volume":"120","author":"Glass","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-3782(90)90105-R","article-title":"The scars of newborn intensive care","volume":"21","author":"Cartlidge","year":"1990","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192S","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(91)90368-8","article-title":"Comparison of rates of nosocomial infections in neonatal intensive care units in the United States","volume":"91","author":"Gaynes","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3721","DOI":"10.3390\/s150203721","article-title":"Wearable Sensor Systems for Infants","volume":"15","author":"Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jp.7210749","article-title":"Comparison of Kangaroo Care and Standard Care","volume":"22","author":"Ohgi","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheung, J.C.-H., Ho, L.T., Cheng, J.V., Cham, E.Y.K., and Lam, K.N. (2020). Staff safety during emergency airway management for COVID-19 in Hong Kong. Lancet Respir. Med.","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30084-9"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1159\/000013953","article-title":"Clinical importance of pain and stress in preterm neonates","volume":"73","author":"Anand","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biol. Neonate"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.2217\/pmt.13.61","article-title":"Early repetitive pain in preterm infants in relation to the developing brain","volume":"4","author":"Ranger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pain Manag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steinbach, J., Goedicke-Fritz, S., Tutdibi, E., Stutz, R., Kaiser, E., Meyer, S., Baumbach, J.I., and Zemlin, M. (2019). Bedside Measurement of Volatile Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere of Neonatal Incubators Using Ion Mobility Spectrometry. Front. Pediatr., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2019.00248"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2014.04.049","article-title":"Detection of bloodstream infections and prediction of bronch opulmonary dysplasia in preterm neonates with an electronic nose","volume":"165","author":"Rogosch","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1053\/j.nainr.2014.10.001","article-title":"Medical Adhesives in the NICU","volume":"14","author":"Lund","year":"2014","journal-title":"Newborn Infant Nurs. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-4632.2012.05687.x","article-title":"Neonatal skin care: A concise review","volume":"52","author":"Ness","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jorge, J., Villarroel, M., Chaichulee, S., Guazzi, A., Davis, S., Green, G., McCormick, K., and Tarassenko, L. (2017). Non-Contact Monitoring of Respiration in the NICU. 2017 12th IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face Gesture Recognition (FG 2017), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/FG.2017.44"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2018.2866878","article-title":"Noncontact Monitoring of Respiratory Rate in Newborn Infants Using Thermal Imaging","volume":"66","author":"Pereira","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/28\/3\/R01","article-title":"Photoplethysmography and its application in clinical physiological measurement","volume":"28","author":"Allen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1159\/000506771","article-title":"Dynamic Light Scattering: A New Noninvasive Technology for Neonatal Heart Rate Monitoring","volume":"117","author":"Goos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neonatology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thull, R., Goedicke-Fritz, S., Schmiech, D., Marnach, A., M\u00fcller, S., K\u00f6rbel, C., Laschke, M.W., Tutdibi, E., Nourkami-Tutdibi, N., and Kaiser, E. (2024). Investigation of a Camera-Based Contactless Pulse Oximeter with Time-Division Multiplex Illumination Applied on Piglets for Neonatological Applications. Biosensors, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202407.2540.v1"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"06TR01","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6579\/ab1f1d","article-title":"Availability and performance of image-based, non-contact methods of monitoring heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation: A systematic review","volume":"40","author":"Harford","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1038\/s41372-021-00967-1","article-title":"Infant heart-rate measurement and oxygen desaturation detection with a digital video camera using imaging photoplethysmography","volume":"41","author":"Wieler","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1007\/s10877-017-0076-1","article-title":"Video-based heart rate monitoring across a range of skin pigmentations during an acute hypoxic challenge","volume":"32","author":"Addison","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Monit. Comput."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5150","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-08836-3","article-title":"Contactless radar-based breathing monitoring in a neonatal intensive care unit","volume":"12","author":"Stutz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gleichauf, J., Herrmann, S., Hennemann, L., Krauss, H., Nitschke, J., Renner, P., Niebler, C., and Koelpin, A. (2021). Automated non-contact neonatal respiratory rate monitoring using interferometric radar. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21092959"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, W.H., Lee, Y., Na, J.Y., Kim, S.H., Lee, H.J., Lim, Y.H., Cho, S.H., Cho, S.H., and Park, H.K. (2020). Feasibility of non-contact cardiorespiratory monitoring using impulse-radio ultra-wideband radar in the neonatal intensive care unit. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243939"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1530","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1975.9992","article-title":"Noninvasive microwave measurement of respiration","volume":"63","author":"Lin","year":"1975","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3143","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2008.2007139","article-title":"Random Body Movement Cancellation in Doppler Radar Vital Sign Detection","volume":"56","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.5194\/ars-15-249-2017","article-title":"A 24 GHz Waveguide based Radar System using an Advanced Algorithm for I\/Q Offset Cancelation","volume":"15","author":"Will","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, Y., Li, C., Yu, X., Weiss, M.D., and Lin, J. (2009). Verification of a non-contact vital sign monitoring system using an infant simulator. 2009 Annual International Conference of the IEEE EMBS, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2009.5332668"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fiser, O., Tesarik, J., Pokorny, T., and Vrba, J. (2019). Non-contact Monitoring of Respiration and Heart Activity of Infants Using UWB Signals. 2019 PhotonIcs Electromagnetics Research Symposium\u2014Spring (PIERS-Spring), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIERS-Spring46901.2019.9017595"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, A., Roh, J.C., Wang, D., and Dubey, A. (2018). Vital signs monitoring of multiple people using a FMCW millimeter-wave sensor. 2018 IEEE Radar Conference (RadarConf18), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2018.8378778"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sacco, G., Piuzzi, E., Pittella, E., and Pisa, S. (2020). An FMCW Radar for Localization and Vital Signs Measurement for Different Chest Orientations. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20123489"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Droitcour, A.D., Seto, T.B., Park, B.-K., Yamada, S., Vergara, A., El Hourani, C., Shing, T., Yuen, A., Lubecke, V.M., and Boric-Lubecke, O. (2009). Non-Contact Respiratory Rate Measurement Validation for Hospitalized Patients. 2009 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2009.5332635"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1587\/transele.2024MMI0002","article-title":"Noncontact sensing of animals using radar","volume":"107","author":"Sakamoto","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEICE Trans. Electron."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, P., Ma, Y., Liang, F., Zhang, Y., Yu, X., Li, Z., An, Q., Lv, H., and Wang, J. (2020). Non-contact vital signs monitoring of dog and cat using a UWB radar. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10020205"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2022.106913","article-title":"Frequency modulated continuous wave radar-based system for monitoring dairy cow respiration rate","volume":"196","author":"Tuan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-020-00629-5","article-title":"A dataset of clinically recorded radar vital signs with synchronised reference sensor signals","volume":"7","author":"Schellenberger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michler, F., Shi, K., Schellenberger, S., Steigleder, T., Malessa, A., Hameyer, L., Neumann, N., Lurz, F., Ostgathe, C., and Weigel, R. (2019). A Clinically Evaluated Interferometric Continuous-Wave Radar System for the Contactless Measurement of Human Vital Parameters. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19112492"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11892","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-48386-9","article-title":"Preclinical Evaluation of a Noncontact Simultaneous Monitoring Method for Respiration and Carotid Pulsation Using Impulse-Radio Ultra-Wideband Radar","volume":"9","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-198508000-00009","article-title":"Cardiovascular and pharmacodynamic effects of high-dose fentanyl in newborn piglets","volume":"63","author":"Schieber","year":"1985","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.20218","article-title":"Postmortem Lung Weight\/Body Weight Standards for Term and Preterm Infants","volume":"40","author":"Paepe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eiby, Y.A., Wright, L.L., Kalanjati, V.P., Miller, S.M., Bjorkman, S.T., Keates, H.L., Lumbers, E.R., Colditz, P.B., and Lingwood, B.E. (2013). A pig model of the preterm neonate: Anthropometric and physiological characteristics. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0068763"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Linde, J.E., Eilevstj\u00f8nn, J., \u00d8ymar, K., and Ersdal, H.L. (2017). Feasibility of a prototype newborn resuscitation monitor to study transition at birth, measuring heart rate and ventilator parameters, an animal experimental study. BMC Res. Notes, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-017-2530-z"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spengler, D., Rintz, N., and Krause, M.F. (2019). An Unsettled Promise: The Newborn Piglet Model of Neonatal Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (NARDS). Front. Physiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.01345"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00e6k, O., Brunse, A., Nguyen, D.N., Moodley, A., Thymann, T., and Sangild, P.T. (2020). Diet Modulates the High Sensitivity to Systemic Infection in Newborn Preterm Pigs. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01019"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4713","DOI":"10.2527\/jas.2013-6359","article-title":"Invited review: The preterm pig as a model in pediatric gastroenterology","volume":"91","author":"Sangild","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1159\/000471483","article-title":"The Aachen Minipig: Phenotype, Genotype, Hematological and Biochemical Characterization, and Comparison to the G\u00f6ttingen Minipig","volume":"58","author":"Pawlowsky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01971385","article-title":"The Goettingen miniature swine as an experimental animal. 1. Review of literature, breeding and handling, cardiovascular parameters","volume":"165","author":"Beglinger","year":"1975","journal-title":"Res. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1097\/ANC.0000000000000764","article-title":"Physiological Stability in Very Preterm Infants During Skin-to-Skin Contact as Assessed by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy","volume":"20","author":"Blomqvist","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Neonatal Care"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-019-0424-6","article-title":"Heart rate fluctuation after birth predicts subsequent cardiorespiratory stability in preterm infants","volume":"86","author":"Jost","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2531","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2015.1092959","article-title":"Preterm infants\u2019 behaviors and skin conductance responses to nurse handling in the NICU","volume":"29","author":"Zeiner","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"93","article-title":"Physiological changes of rectal temperature, pulse rate and respiratory rate of pigs at different ages including the critical peripartal period","volume":"100","author":"Sipos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Wien. Tierarztl. Monatsschr."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Baumgartner, W. (2005). Klinische Prop\u00e4deutik der Haus- und Heimtiere, Parey\/Georg Thieme Verlag. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stroe, M., Van Bockstal, L., Valenzuela, A.P.Z., Ayuso, M., Leys, K., Annaert, P., Carpentier, S., Smits, A., Allegaert, K., and Zeltner, A. (2023). Development of a neonatal G\u00f6ttingen Minipig model for dose precision in perinatal asphyxia: Technical opportunities, challenges, and potential further steps. Front. Pediatr., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2023.1163100"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, J., Chong, J., Zhang, J., and Ge, L. (2023). Preterm pigs for preterm birth research: Reasonably feasible. Front. Physiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2023.1189422"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L118","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00173.2014","article-title":"A preterm pig model of lung immaturity and spontaneous infant respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"308","author":"Caminita","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)62226-X","article-title":"Normal ranges of heart rate and respiratory rate in children from birth to 18 years of age","volume":"377","author":"Fleming","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1213\/00000539-199107000-00002","article-title":"Left ventricular performance during propofol or methohexital anesthesia: Isotopic and invasive cardiac monitoring","volume":"73","author":"Lepage","year":"1991","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1258\/la.2008.0080026","article-title":"Haemodynamic changes and stress responses of piglets to surgery during total intravenous anaesthesia with propofol and fentanyl","volume":"43","author":"Winter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lab Anim."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du Sert, N.P., Ahluwalia, A., Alam, S., Avey, M.T., Baker, M., Browne, W.J., Clark, A., Cuthill, I.C., Dirnagl, U., and Emerson, M. (2020). Reporting animal research: Explanation and elaboration for the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0. PLOS Biol., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3000411"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmiech, D., M\u00fcller, S., and Diewald, A.R. (2018). 4-Channel I\/Q-Radar System For Vital Sign Monitoring In A Baby Incubator. 2018 19th International Radar Symposium (IRS), IEEE.","DOI":"10.23919\/IRS.2018.8448163"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.5194\/ars-17-249-2019","article-title":"Verification and first test measurement of a microwave-based vital sign monitor","volume":"17","author":"Schmiech","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Marnach, A., Schmiech, D., and Diewald, A.R. (2019). Illumination Coverage Measurement of an I\/Q-Radar System for a Baby Incubator. 23rd International Conference on Applied Electromagnetics and Communications (ICECOM), IEEE."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marnach, A., Schmiech, D., and Diewald, A.R. (2019). Verification of Algorithm for an I\/Q-Radar System for Breathing Detection in an Incubator. 2019 International Conference on Electromagnetics in Advanced Applications (ICEAA), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEAA.2019.8879336"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20232","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56588-4","article-title":"Chest Movement and Respiratory Volume both Contribute to Thoracic Bioimpedance during Loaded Breathing","volume":"9","author":"Groenendaal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moeyersons, J., Morales, J., Seeuws, N., Van Hoof, C., Hermeling, E., Groenendaal, W., Willems, R., Van Huffel, S., and Varon, C. (2021). Artefact Detection in Impedance Pneumography Signals: A Machine Learning Approach. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082613"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diewald, A.R., and M\u00fcller, S. (2019). Design of a six-patch series-fed traveling-wave antenna. 2019 IEEE-APS Topical Conference on Antennas and Propagation in Wireless Communications (APWC), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/APWC.2019.8870368"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F47","DOI":"10.1136\/fn.72.1.F47","article-title":"Exposure to invasive procedures in neonatal intensive care unit admissions","volume":"72","author":"Barker","year":"1995","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-011-1409-6","article-title":"Apnea of prematurity: From cause to treatment","volume":"170","author":"Zhao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1038\/jp.2010.126","article-title":"Apnea of prematurity: Pathogenesis and management strategies","volume":"31","author":"Mathew","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, S., Liang, X., Dang, X., Jiang, N., Cao, J., Zeng, Z., and Li, Y. (2024). Random Body Movement Removal Using Adaptive Motion Artifact Filtering in mmWave Radar-Based Neonatal Heartbeat Sensing. Electronics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics13081471"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sahoo, N.N., Murugesan, B., Das, A., Karthik, S., Ram, K., Leonhardt, S., Joseph, J., and Sivaprakasam, M. (2022). Deep learning based non-contact physiological monitoring in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. 2022 44th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society (EMBC), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC48229.2022.9871025"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/7\/2139\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T01:12:48Z","timestamp":1775437968000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/7\/2139"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]]},"references-count":86,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s26072139"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26072139","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]]}}}