{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T02:18:57Z","timestamp":1792030737461,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774915200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the functional materials and assembly technologies used in intracardiac echocardiography (ICE) and intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) transducers. ICE and IVUS are advanced medical imaging technologies that play significant roles in the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases, involving material selection and fabrication processes for miniature piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers. The review begins with an introduction to the principles and applications of ICE and IVUS, highlighting their advantages over other imaging modalities, then delves into the materials and assembly processes of the transducers, presenting the mainstream trends and research progress in various directions in this field in recent years. Finally, the paper summarizes the future technological development and clinical application trends of ICE\/IVUS ultrasonic transducers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26072143","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T13:23:17Z","timestamp":1774963397000},"page":"2143","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Functional Materials for ICE and IVUS Piezoelectric Transducers: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7708-3228","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dayong","family":"He","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ultrasonic Transducer Development Department, Shenzhen Mindray Bio-Medical Electronics Co., Ltd., Shenzhen 518057, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Baihezi","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ultrasonic Transducer Development Department, Shenzhen Mindray Bio-Medical Electronics Co., Ltd., Shenzhen 518057, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1111\/joic.12382","article-title":"Intracardiac versus transesophageal echocardiography to guide transcatheter closure of interatrial communications: Nationwide trend and comparative analysis","volume":"30","author":"Alqahtani","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Interv. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amin, Z., Tobis, J.M., Sievert, H., and Carroll, J.D. (2015). A Comparison of Methods to Detect and Quantitate PFO: TCD, TTE, ICE and TEE. Patent Foramen Ovale, Springer London.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-4987-3"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.4070\/kcj.2023.0195","article-title":"Comparison of intracardiac echocardiography versus transesophageal echocardiography for guidance during transcatheter aortic valve replacement","volume":"54","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Korean Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"567","article-title":"Transoesophageal echocardiography related complications","volume":"53","author":"Mathur","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1136\/hrt.2004.050443","article-title":"Clinical applications of intracardiac echocardiography in interventional procedures","volume":"91","author":"Jongbloed","year":"2005","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.04.069","article-title":"Safety of Transesophageal Echocardiography to Guide Structural Cardiac Interventions","volume":"75","author":"Bernier","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s12928-025-01090-0","article-title":"CVIT 2025 clinical expert consensus document on intravascular ultrasound","volume":"40","author":"Saito","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Interv. Ther."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3281","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehy285","article-title":"Clinical use of intracoronary imaging. Part 1: Guidance and optimization of coronary interventions. An expert consensus document of the European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions","volume":"39","author":"Mintz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcin.2020.02.043","article-title":"Drug-Coated Balloons for Coronary Artery Disease: Third Report of the International DCB Consensus Group","volume":"13","author":"Jeger","year":"2020","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Interv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcin.2024.04.014","article-title":"Intravascular Ultrasound vs Angiography-Guided Drug-Coated Balloon Angioplasty: The ULTIMATE III Trial","volume":"17","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Interv."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, C., Wu, H., Kim, S., Dai, X., and Jiang, X. (2021). Recent Advances in Transducers for Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS) Imaging. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21103540"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sung, J.-H., and Chang, J.-H. (2021). Mechanically rotating intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) transducer: A review. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21113907"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leuzzi, F., Formisano, C., Cerrato, E., Maione, A., Attisano, T., Meucci, F., Ciccarelli, M., Vecchione, C., Galasso, G., and Di Muro, F.M. (2026). Intracardiac Echocardiography in Structural Heart Interventions: A Comprehensive Overview. J. Clin. Med., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm15030926"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2011.1967","article-title":"A 10-Fr ultrasound catheter with integrated micromotor for 4-D intracardiac echocardiography","volume":"58","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2159","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2016.2615602","article-title":"4-D ICE: A 2-D Array Transducer With Integrated ASIC in a 10-Fr Catheter for Real-Time 3-D Intracardiac Echocardiography","volume":"63","author":"Wildes","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmg.2024.05.012","article-title":"Structural Heart Imaging Using 3-Dimensional Intracardiac Echocardiography","volume":"18","author":"Tang","year":"2025","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200","DOI":"10.4022\/jafib.2200","article-title":"4D Volume Intracardiac Echocardiography for Intraprocedural Guidance of Transcatheter Left Atrial Appendage Closure","volume":"12","author":"Khalili","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Atr. Fibrillation"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcin.2021.05.038","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy of Transcatheter Mitral Valve Replacement Guided by Intracardiac Echocardiography","volume":"14","author":"Pommier","year":"2021","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Interv."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.shj.2022.100046","article-title":"Transcatheter Valve-in-Valve Mitral Valve Replacement Using 4D Intracardiac Echocardiogram and Conscious Sedation","volume":"6","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2022","journal-title":"Struct. Heart"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.echo.2011.04.009","article-title":"Intracardiac echocardiography: A new guiding tool for transcatheter aortic valve replacement","volume":"24","author":"Bartel","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2012.01.008","article-title":"Accuracy of intracardiac echocardiography for aortic root assessment in patients undergoing transcatheter aortic valve implantation","volume":"163","author":"Ussia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"643","article-title":"Intracardiac echocardiography to guide Watchman FLX implantation: The ICE LAA study","volume":"16","author":"Berti","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Interv."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2019.2906134","article-title":"Fabrication and Characterization of a Miniaturized 15-MHz Side-Looking Phased-Array Transducer Catheter","volume":"66","author":"Eliahoo","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Shlofmitz, E., Kerndt, C.C., Parekh, A., and Khalid, N. (2023). Intravascular ultrasound. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultrasmedbio.2017.09.015","article-title":"Development of a 3 French dual-frequency intravascular ultrasound catheter","volume":"44","author":"Munding","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ultrasound Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2014.006679","article-title":"Multi-frequency intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging","volume":"62","author":"Ma","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ono, M., Kawashima, H., Hara, H., Gao, C., Wang, R., Kogame, N., Takahashi, K., Chichareon, P., Modolo, R., and Tomaniak, M. (2020). Advances in IVUS\/OCT and future clinical perspective of novel hybrid catheter system in coronary imaging. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2020.00119"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2014.2977","article-title":"A preliminary engineering design of intravascular dual-frequency transducers for contrast-enhanced acoustic angiography and molecular imaging","volume":"61","author":"Ma","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3441","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/60\/9\/3441","article-title":"Design factors of intravascular dual frequency transducers for super-harmonic contrast imaging and acoustic angiography","volume":"60","author":"Ma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2016.2619687","article-title":"Contrast Enhanced Superharmonic Imaging for Acoustic Angiography Using Reduced Form-Factor Lateral Mode Transmitters for Intravascular and Intracavity Applications","volume":"64","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultrasmedbio.2012.10.020","article-title":"Contrast-enhanced intravascular ultrasound pulse sequences for bandwidth-limited transducers","volume":"39","author":"Maresca","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ultrasound Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2015.2506639","article-title":"An Integrated System for Superharmonic Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Imaging: Design and Intravascular Phantom Imaging Study","volume":"63","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2281","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2011.2085","article-title":"80-MHz intravascular ultrasound transducer using PMN-PT free-standing film","volume":"58","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2015.02.037","article-title":"Angled-focused 45 MHz PMN-PT single element transducer for intravascular ultrasound imaging","volume":"228","author":"Yoon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2019.2956603","article-title":"Single-Crystal High-Frequency Intravascular Ultrasound Transducer With 40-\u03bcm Axial Resolution","volume":"67","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, J., Jiang, X., Snook, K., Rehrig, P., Shrout, T., Hackenberger, W.S., Cheng, A., Cao, P., Lavalelle, G., and Geng, X. (2006). 5I-1 Microfabrication of piezoelectric composite ultrasound transducers (PC-MUT). Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ULTSYM.2006.246"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shung, K.K. (2015). Diagnostic Ultrasound: Imaging and Blood Flow Measurements, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b18323"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"199","article-title":"A8. 4-Modelling and Characterization of Piezoelectric 1\u20133 Fiber Composites","volume":"2011","author":"Steinhausen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, Z., Wang, N., Li, Z., Zhu, X., Chen, Y., Jian, X., and Cui, Y. (2021). Phased-array transducer for intracardiac echocardiography based on 1\u20133 piezocomposite. Front. Mater., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2021.663926"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2014.3016","article-title":"Micromachined PIN-PMN-PT crystal composite transducer for high-frequency intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging","volume":"61","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, J.R., Jiang, X., Cao, P.J., Sadaka, A., Bautista, R., Snook, K., and Rehrig, P.W. (2006, January 2\u20136). 5C-5 High Frequency Piezo Composites Microfabricated Ultrasound Transducers for Intravascular Imaging (Invited). Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ULTSYM.2006.83"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1272","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2013.2692","article-title":"Lead-free intravascular ultrasound transducer using BZT-50BCT ceramics","volume":"60","author":"Yan","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257602","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.103.257602","article-title":"Large piezoelectric effect in Pb-free ceramics","volume":"103","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173504","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4919387","article-title":"(100)-Textured KNN-based thick film with enhanced piezoelectric property for intravascular ultrasound imaging","volume":"106","author":"Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2021.106404","article-title":"Development of high frequency piezocomposite with hexagonal pillars via cold ablation process","volume":"114","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sung, J.H., and Jeong, J.S. (2018). Development of High-Frequency (>60 MHz) Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS) Transducer by Using Asymmetric Electrodes for Improved Beam Profile. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18124414"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mejo.2005.10.012","article-title":"Capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) arrays for medical imaging","volume":"37","author":"Caronti","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microelectron. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szabo, T.L. (2014). Chapter 5\u2014Transducers. Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging: Inside Out, Academic Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-396487-8.00005-7"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-5629(94)00117-0","article-title":"Acoustic properties of some biocompatible polymers at body temperature","volume":"21","author":"Guess","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ultrasound Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1121\/1.382352","article-title":"The relationship between collagen and ultrasonic attenuation in myocardial tissue","volume":"65","author":"Mimbs","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2008.685","article-title":"The acoustic lens design and in vivo use of a multifunctional catheter combining intracardiac ultrasound imaging and electrophysiology sensing","volume":"55","author":"Stephens","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1109\/58.883528","article-title":"Experimental study of the acoustical properties of polymers utilized to construct PVDF ultrasonic transducers and the acousto-electric properties of PVDF and P (VDF\/TrFE) films","volume":"47","author":"Bloomfield","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042001","DOI":"10.1088\/2057-1976\/add7e2","article-title":"Rational Design of Alternative Natural-Based Coupling Media for Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging: A Review","volume":"11","author":"Nimoh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed. Phys. Eng. Express"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1023\/B:CAIM.0000014046.63648.1c","article-title":"Adjustment method for mechanical Boston scientific corporation 30 MHz intravascular ultrasound catheters connected to a Clearview\u00ae console","volume":"20","author":"Bruining","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Corl, P.D. (2013). Device and System for Imaging and Blood Flow Velocity Measurement. (Application 13\/892,108), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2013.2635","article-title":"New fabrication of high-frequency (100-MHz) ultrasound PZT film kerfless linear array [Correspondence]","volume":"60","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2006.1588408","article-title":"Development of a 35-MHz piezo-composite ultrasound array for medical imaging","volume":"53","author":"Cannata","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9327270","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/9327270","article-title":"A High Frequency Geometric Focusing Transducer Based on 1-3 Piezocomposite for Intravascular Ultrasound Imaging","volume":"2017","author":"Jian","year":"2017","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thangaraju, P., and Varthya, S.B. (2022). ISO 10993: Biological evaluation of medical devices. Medical Device Guidelines and Regulations Handbook, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-91855-2_11"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2018.03.025","article-title":"Test method for mechanical properties of implantable catheters according to DIN 10555-3","volume":"82","author":"Busch","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2021.106415","article-title":"Gas-coupled laser acoustic detection technique for NDT of mechanical components","volume":"114","author":"Gulino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123001","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/25\/12\/123001","article-title":"A review of acoustic power transfer for bio-medical implants","volume":"25","author":"Basaeri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Tran-Huu-Hue, L., Desmare, R., Lavassort, F., and Lethiecq, M. (1997). KLM circuit-based method for modeling multilayer piezoelectric structures. Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium Proceedings. An International Symposium (Cat. No. 97CH36118), IEEE."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1109\/T-SU.1978.31001","article-title":"The design of efficient broad-band piezoelectric transducers","volume":"25","author":"Desilets","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Sonics Ultrason."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/T-UFFC.1987.26905","article-title":"Design of ultrasonic transducers with multiple acoustic matching layers for medical application","volume":"34","author":"Inoue","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, G., Chen, Y., Li, M., Yang, J., and Xi, S. (2025). Design of a Cylindrical Megahertz Miniature Ultrasonic Welding Oscillator. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25185922"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2018.03.021","article-title":"Reducing mechanical cross-coupling in phased array transducers using stop band material as backing","volume":"424","author":"Henneberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayter, S. (1990). Transmission line modelling for array transducer elements. Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Ultrasonics, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ULTSYM.1990.171473"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Arakawa, T., and Tateishi, Y. (2026, March 23). Ceramic-Based Acoustic Matching Layer Material, Production Method Therefor, and Use Therefor. Available online: https:\/\/worldwide.espacenet.com\/publicationDetails\/biblio?DB=&ND=5&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=20231005&CC=JP&NR=WO2023190097A1&KC=A1."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2009.1021","article-title":"Alumina\/epoxy nanocomposite matching layers for high-frequency ultrasound transducer application","volume":"56","author":"Zhou","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2023.3303396","article-title":"Design and Fabrication of Annular-Array Ultrasound Transducer Based (K, Na) NbO 3 Lead-Free 1\u20133 Piezoelectric Composite","volume":"71","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"671","article-title":"Oblong-shaped-focused transducers for intravascular ultrasound imaging","volume":"64","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2024.02.213","article-title":"PZN-PT single crystal based high-frequency intravascular ultrasound transducers","volume":"50","author":"Quan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1911","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2014.006480","article-title":"Mass-spring matching layers for high-frequency ultrasound transducers: A new technique using vacuum deposition","volume":"61","author":"Brown","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, T., Jung, J., Lee, S.-M., Park, J., Park, J.-H., Paik, K.-W., and Lee, H.J. (2022). FPCB as an acoustic matching layer for 1D linear ultrasound transducer arrays. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22155557"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2024.02.006","article-title":"Optimal design of ultrasonic transducer based on multi-layer backing with adjustable impedance","volume":"50","author":"Hou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Lange, J.N. (1964). A Study of Ultrasonic Attenuation and Wave Propagation in Solids, The Pennsylvania State University."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1109\/58.63106","article-title":"Acoustic properties of particle\/polymer composites for ultrasonic transducer backing applications","volume":"37","author":"Grewe","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1960","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2022.3164451","article-title":"High-attenuation backing layer for miniaturized ultrasound imaging transducer","volume":"69","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"2201","article-title":"An open system for intravascular ultrasound imaging","volume":"59","author":"Qiu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J., Moon, J.Y., and Chang, J.H. (2018). A 35 MHz\/105 MHz Dual-Element Focused Transducer for Intravascular Ultrasound Tissue Imaging Using the Third Harmonic. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201806.0234.v1"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y., Liu, X., Zhang, J., and Peng, C. (2023). A Backing-Layer-Shared Miniature Dual-Frequency Ultrasound Probe for Intravascular Ultrasound Imaging: In Vitro and Ex Vivo Validations. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13110971"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2839","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2010.1758","article-title":"A dual-modality probe utilizing intravascular ultrasound and optical coherence tomography for intravascular imaging applications","volume":"57","author":"Yang","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J., and Chang, J.H. (2018). A 40-MHz Ultrasound Transducer with an Angled Aperture for Guiding Percutaneous Revascularization of Chronic Total Occlusion: A Feasibility Study. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18114079"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Li, Y., Qin, H., and Peng, C. (2025). High-Frequency 64-Element Ring-Annular Array Transducer: Development and Preclinical Validation for Intravascular Ultrasound Imaging. Biosensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15030169"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2014.2929","article-title":"An IVUS transducer for microbubble therapies","volume":"61","author":"Kilroy","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2018.07.035","article-title":"Forward-looking 30-MHz phased-array transducer for peripheral intravascular imaging","volume":"280","author":"Eliahoo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A: Phys."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultrasmedbio.2023.11.001","article-title":"An ultrasound matrix transducer for high-frame-rate 3-D intra-cardiac echocardiography","volume":"50","author":"Ossenkoppele","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ultrasound Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1109\/51.544509","article-title":"Ultrasonic transducers and arrays","volume":"15","author":"Shung","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2015.2496580","article-title":"A prototype PZT matrix transducer with low-power integrated receive ASIC for 3-D transesophageal echocardiography","volume":"63","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2065","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2018.2820156","article-title":"A Reconfigurable Ultrasound Transceiver ASIC With $24\\times40 $ Elements for 3-D Carotid Artery Imaging","volume":"53","author":"Kang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2016.2638433","article-title":"A front-end ASIC with receive sub-array beamforming integrated with a 32 \u00d7 32 PZT matrix transducer for 3-D transesophageal echocardiography","volume":"52","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"McKeighen, R. (1998). Design guidelines for medical ultrasonic arrays. Medical Imaging 1998: Ultrasonic Transducer Engineering, SPIE Int."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2014.2999","article-title":"PMN-PT single-crystal high-frequency kerfless phased array","volume":"61","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cannata, J., Williams, J., and Shung, K. (2005). A kerfless 30 MHz linear ultrasonic array. Proceedings of the IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, 2005, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ULTSYM.2005.1602808"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2006.1632694","article-title":"Investigation of cross talk in kerfless annular arrays for high-frequency imaging","volume":"53","author":"Brown","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huff, M. (2021). Recent advances in reactive ion etching and applications of high-aspect-ratio microfabrication. Micromachines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi12080991"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2018.2856930","article-title":"A novel synchronous micro motor for intravascular ultrasound imaging","volume":"66","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/0025-5408(78)90161-7","article-title":"Connectivity and piezoelectric-pyroelectric composites","volume":"13","author":"Newnham","year":"1978","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1109\/58.67833","article-title":"Modeling 1-3 composite piezoelectrics: Thickness-mode oscillations","volume":"38","author":"Smith","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boujenoui, A., El Atlas, N., Bybi, A., Reskal, H., and Elmaimouni, L. (2025). Advances in Crosstalk Reduction Techniques for Ultrasonic Transducer Arrays. Sensors, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25247666"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2615","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2013.2860","article-title":"Micromachining techniques in developing high-frequency piezoelectric composite ultrasonic array transducers","volume":"60","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Li, S. (2017). Micromachined Piezoelectric Material and Dual-Layer Transducers for Ultrasound Imaging, North Carolina State University."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/eht411","article-title":"Why is intracardiac echocardiography helpful? Benefits, costs, and how to learn","volume":"35","author":"Bartel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baru\u015b, P., Modrzewski, J., Gumi\u0119\u017cna, K., Dunaj, P., G\u0142\u00f3d, M., Bednarek, A., Wa\u0144ha, W., Roleder, T., Kochman, J., and Tomaniak, M. (2022). Comparative Appraisal of Intravascular Ultrasound and Optical Coherence Tomography in Invasive Coronary Imaging: 2022 Update. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11144055"},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"440","article-title":"Comparison of intravascular ultrasound, optical coherence tomography, and conventional angiography-guided percutaneous coronary interventions: A systematic review, network meta-analysis, and meta-regression","volume":"102","author":"Park","year":"2023","journal-title":"Catheter. Cardiovasc. Interv."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Huang, X. (2015). CMOS Multimodal Sensor Based Lab-on-a-Chip System for Personalized Bio-Imaging Diagnosis. [Ph.D. Thesis, Nanyang Technological University]."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y., Wan, H., Jiang, X., and Peng, C. (2023). Piezoelectric Micromachined Ultrasound Transducer Technology: Recent Advances and Applications. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13010055"},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Abaravi\u010dius, B. (2023). Development of Electronics for Microultrasound Capsule Endoscopy. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Glasgow]."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmg.2019.10.008","article-title":"Core Competencies in Echocardiography for Imaging Structural Heart Disease Interventions: An Expert Consensus Statement","volume":"12","author":"Hahn","year":"2019","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5633","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20095633","article-title":"Challenges and Burdens in the Coronary Artery Disease Care Pathway for Patients Undergoing Percutaneous Coronary Intervention: A Contemporary Narrative Review","volume":"20","author":"Kodeboina","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000026","DOI":"10.1161\/HCI.0000000000000026","article-title":"2019 ACC\/AHA\/ASE Advanced Training Statement on Echocardiography (Revision of the 2003 ACC\/AHA Clinical Competence Statement on Echocardiography): A Report of the ACC Competency Management Committee","volume":"12","author":"Wiegers","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s10198-015-0670-4","article-title":"Understanding the economic impact of intravascular ultrasound (IVUS)","volume":"17","author":"Alberti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Health Econ."},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"McLoughlin, D. (2025). Development of an Automated Catheter Production Line with SCADA Integration for the Medical Device Industry. [Bachelor\u2019s Thesis, Technological Uninersity of The Shannon]."},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"364","article-title":"Research on the Financial Impact of Centralized Procurement of Medical Consumables on Public Hospitals","volume":"13","author":"Wen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Open J. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1111\/echo.14971","article-title":"Concepts and applications of ultrafast cardiac ultrasound imaging","volume":"38","author":"Petrescu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Echocardiography"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.15420\/icr.2015.10.1.8","article-title":"Intravascular Ultrasound Versus Optical Coherence Tomography for Coronary Artery Imaging\u2014Apples and Oranges?","volume":"10","author":"Rathod","year":"2015","journal-title":"Interv. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Y., Han, W., Wang, S., Jia, W., Wang, Y., Li, J., and Chen, B. (2025). Advantages of hybrid intravascular ultrasound-optical coherence tomography system in clinical practice. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2025.1595889"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.26599\/1671-5411.2024.01.010","article-title":"Updates of developments in interventional therapy for elderly patients with cardiovascular diseases","volume":"21","author":"Shen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsigkas, G., Nastouli, K.M., Apostolos, A., Spyropoulou, P., Bozika, M., Papafaklis, M., Rouzi, S., Tsimara, E., Karanasos, A., and Mplani, V. (2025). When Functional Assessment Meets Intravascular Imaging in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease. J. Cardiovasc. Dev. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcdd12080319"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-020-0181-z","article-title":"Capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducers for intravascular ultrasound imaging","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/7\/2143\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T13:30:00Z","timestamp":1774963800000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/7\/2143"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]]},"references-count":121,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s26072143"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26072143","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]]}}}