{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T10:49:38Z","timestamp":1785408578837,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775088000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004704","name":"National Research Council of Thailand","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N42A680142"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N42A680142"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004704","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["N42A680142"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N42A680142"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/018wfhg78","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Research and Innovation Institute of Excellence, Walailak University","award":["WU66252"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WU66252"]}]},{"award":["WU66252"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WU66252"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04b69g067","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Brain\u2013computer interfaces (BCIs) are essential in assistive technologies to restore mobility in individuals with motor impairments. Although electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain-controlled wheelchairs have been extensively studied, most tongue-controlled systems rely on physical tongue movements, intraoral devices, or limited offline commands, which reduces the usability and comfort. This study introduces an EEG-based tongue motor imagery (MI) BCI for intuitive and entirely mental wheelchair control. By leveraging preserved motor function and the cortical representation of the tongue, the system enables natural four-directional control through imagined tongue movements. Six imagined tongue actions\u2014touching the left and right mouth corners, the upper and lower lips, and producing left and right cheek bulges\u2014were designed to elicit alpha-band event-related desynchronization (ERD) patterns over the tongue motor cortex. EEG data were collected from 15 healthy participants using a 14-channel consumer-grade EMOTIV EPOC X headset. Alpha-band ERD features were extracted and classified using linear discriminant analysis, support vector machine, na\u00efve Bayes, and artificial neural networks (ANNs). Simpler command sets yielded the highest accuracy: two-class tasks achieved 76.19%, while the performance decreased with increasing task complexity. The ANN achieved superior results in multi-class scenarios. The proposed tongue MI method offers initial support for developing a BCI control strategy for assistive technology; however, further improvements in classification techniques, user training, and real-time validation are needed to improve the robustness and practical usability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26072211","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T01:12:33Z","timestamp":1775437953000},"page":"2211","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Electroencephalography-Based Brain\u2013Computer Interface System Using Tongue Movement Imagery for Wheelchair Control"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7165-7526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theerat","family":"Saichoo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9838-6225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nannaphat","family":"Siribunyaphat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"},{"name":"Informatics Innovative Center of Excellence, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5953-9874","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bukhoree","family":"Sahoh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"},{"name":"Informatics Innovative Center of Excellence, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0882-8385","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M. Arif","family":"Efendi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nuclear Engineering and Engineering Physics, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6994-9682","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunyong","family":"Punsawad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"},{"name":"Informatics Innovative Center of Excellence, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0096","DOI":"10.34133\/hds.0096","article-title":"Recent progress in wearable brain\u2013computer interface (BCI) devices based on electroencephalogram (EEG) for medical applications: A review","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Data Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"S233","article-title":"Brain computer interfaces in rehabilitation medicine","volume":"10","author":"Bockbrader","year":"2018","journal-title":"PMR"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burgos, D. 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