{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T01:15:11Z","timestamp":1790990111531,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":147,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775606400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"PRIN-PNRR AIPAD (Artificial Intelligence and Physics for Art Diagnostics) Project","award":["CUP_B53D23029240001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP_B53D23029240001"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2014Next Generation EU","award":["M4.C2.1.1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["M4.C2.1.1"]}]},{"award":["M4.C2.1.1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["M4.C2.1.1"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/019w4f821","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"PNRR H2IOSC (Humanities and Cultural Heritage Italian Open Science Cloud) Project","award":["CUP_B63C22000730005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP_B63C22000730005"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review provides a comprehensive overview of the most adopted 3D surveying techniques in Cultural Heritage, offering practical guidance for the selection of appropriate methods when three-dimensional documentation of artworks is required. The analysis focuses on the most effective technologies for the 3D documentation of sites and objects of artistic value, with selection criteria primarily centred on non-invasiveness, given the uniqueness and cultural significance of the case studies, and the instrument flexibility, a crucial requirement for non-transportable items. A broad spectrum of 3D techniques is currently available for the multiscale diagnostic investigation of artworks, providing information at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. This review reports on the state of the art of such systems and evaluates the main characteristics of each technology in relation to its applicability in the heritage field. Particular attention is given to highlighting advantages and limitations, and to assessing performance in terms of resolution, gauge volume\/area, acquisition time, and cost. In addition, the review discusses exemplary cases in which 3D methods are integrated with other analytical techniques to enable a more comprehensive understanding of the object under investigation. Finally, recent studies are examined to identify the most suitable approaches and the specific requirements for the digitization of real-world heritage assets.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26082297","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T15:26:39Z","timestamp":1775661999000},"page":"2297","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Three-Dimensional Surveying with Optical Sensors in Heritage Science: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5575-3679","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emma","family":"Vannini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council\u2014National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), Largo E. Fermi 6, 50125 Firenze, Tuscany, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florence, Via Sansone 1, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Firenze, Tuscany, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Verona, Strada le Grazie 15, 37134 Verona, Veneto, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7960-2546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alice","family":"Dal Fovo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council\u2014National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), Largo E. Fermi 6, 50125 Firenze, Tuscany, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raffaella","family":"Fontana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council\u2014National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), Largo E. Fermi 6, 50125 Firenze, Tuscany, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2023.01.010","article-title":"Change Detection of Urban Objects Using 3D Point Clouds: A Review","volume":"197","author":"Stilla","year":"2023","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gagliardi, C., Riparbelli, L., Mazzanti, P., Fioravanti, M., and Monaco, A. (2025). A Critical Review of Methods and Techniques Used for Monitoring Deformations in Wooden Panel Paintings. 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