{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T04:52:59Z","timestamp":1777006379169,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775779200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The impact of skin pigmentation on the accuracy of optical biomedical devices has gained increased attention since the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly following evidence of oximetry measurement bias in dark-skinned individuals. Meanwhile, many computational models utilising the Monte Carlo (MC) technique have been developed as a cost-effective and scalable method for investigating these effects. Hence, this review explores the application of the MC technique in modelling skin pigmentation, focusing specifically on how melanin in the epidermis is represented across different studies. First, the biological mechanisms of pigmentation and current stratification methods are outlined to contextualise the variability in skin tone, followed by the principles of MC modelling, including photon scattering, absorption, reflection, and detection. Following a screening and exclusion process, 50 studies were evaluated in terms of how melanin concentration and distribution are incorporated into MC models and their applications, revealing a range of approaches that include analytical equations, experimental optical property measurements, or hybrid methods. The benefits and limitations of each approach is discussed, in addition to emerging advancements such as heterogeneous melanin distribution and the relation between optical properties and skin colour classification scales. Overall, the review outlines the current methodological approaches utilised for skin pigmentation modelling and offers a reference framework for researchers seeking to improve the representation of skin pigmentation in MC-based optical simulations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26082337","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T09:08:12Z","timestamp":1775812092000},"page":"2337","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Modelling Skin Pigmentation Using the Monte Carlo Technique: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6193-921X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raghda","family":"Al-Halawani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Centre for Biomedical Engineering, City St George\u2019s, University of London, Northampton Square, London EC1V 0HB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Meha","family":"Qassem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Centre for Biomedical Engineering, City St George\u2019s, University of London, Northampton Square, London EC1V 0HB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Panicos A.","family":"Kyriacou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Centre for Biomedical Engineering, City St George\u2019s, University of London, Northampton Square, London EC1V 0HB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Department of Health and Social Care (2025, November 03). \u201cEquity in Medical Devices: Independent Review.\u201d GOV.UK. 11 March 2024, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/groups\/equity-in-medical-devices-independent-review."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2025, May 16). \u2018Government Response to the Report of the Equity in Medical Devices: Independent Review\u2019. 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