{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T09:29:47Z","timestamp":1785403787101,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776124800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h531d29","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory and neurodegenerative disease. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-invasive imaging technique of the retina. The thickness of the ganglion cell\u2013inner plexiform layer (GCIPL) obtained from an OCT image is a valuable biomarker for monitoring MS. Since the functional shape (F-shape)-based technique has proven to be an effective platform for detecting glaucoma using OCT images, in this paper, we develop an F-shape-based framework to distinguish MS subjects from healthy ones using the thickness of GCIPL. The thickness of the GCIPL layers in the macula region of OCT images in a selected region of interest (ROI) for a set of healthy and MS subjects is represented as F-shape objects, which are registered to a common template using atlas registration. The residual F-shapes, defined as the difference between the F-shape of this common template and the individual registered F-shapes, are used to train an support vector machine (SVM) classifier and subsequently to detect MS. Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve (AUC) are used to evaluate and compare the classification performance of the proposed F-shape-based scheme and those of sectoral-based schemes. The proposed F-shape-based scheme is shown to significantly outperform the sectoral-based schemes. The superior performance of the proposed F-shape-based scheme can be attributed to the use of (i) a highly dense mesh formed on the ROI in the macula region, (ii) atlas registration that puts the F-shapes of all the subjects on a common platform, and (iii) residual thicknesses as input features for the classification.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26082399","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T14:24:58Z","timestamp":1776176698000},"page":"2399","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Functional Shape Framework for the Detection of Multiple Sclerosis Using Optical Coherence Tomography Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-3761-9066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Homa","family":"Tahvilian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, Montr\u00e9al, QC H3G 1M8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0087-9476","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raheleh","family":"Kafieh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4881-958X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fereshteh","family":"Ashtari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Isfahan Neurosciences Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 81746-73461, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3989-5476","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M. N. S.","family":"Swamy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, Montr\u00e9al, QC H3G 1M8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2924-6659","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M. Omair","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, Montr\u00e9al, QC H3G 1M8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458509107016","article-title":"Gender Differences in Health-Related Quality of Life in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"15","author":"Casetta","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. 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