{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:14:29Z","timestamp":1792790069698,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":134,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,19]],"date-time":"2026-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776556800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2024YFB3212300"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YFB3212300"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62271443"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62271443"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["82330064"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82330064"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62120106004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62120106004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["62271443"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62271443"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["82330064"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82330064"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["62120106004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62120106004"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Key Project of Zhejiang Province","award":["2025C02035"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025C02035"]}]},{"name":"Key Project of Zhejiang Province","award":["2024C03146"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024C03146"]}]},{"name":"Funds of the Natural Science Foundation of Hangzhou","award":["2025SZRJJ2329"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025SZRJJ2329"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["226-2025-00037"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["226-2025-00037"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Central nervous system (CNS) disorders represent a growing healthcare burden, and various drugs are developed for their treatment. However, the blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB) prevents over 98% of therapeutics from reaching brain tissue. Intranasal delivery provides a promising alternative by exploiting olfactory and trigeminal nerve pathways to circumvent the BBB. This review surveys recent advances in nose-to-brain delivery technologies, from carrier design to evaluation methods. Polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers show enhanced mucosal penetration and prolonged residence time, and microneedle platforms further enable controlled drug release with minimal discomfort. To evaluate these delivery strategies, sensor-integrated organ-on-chip models provide more physiologically relevant testing than static cultures. Although persistent challenges such as rapid mucociliary clearance and formulation stability remain, combining nanotechnology with microfluidic devices and computational modeling shows potential for developing patient-specific therapeutics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26082523","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T08:24:23Z","timestamp":1776673463000},"page":"2523","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Advanced Sensing and Delivery Technologies for Nose-to-Brain Administration: From Nanocarriers to Sensor-Integrated Organ-on-Chips"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Xiaoxue","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Education Ministry, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Sensing Technology and Advanced Medical Instrument and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruoqi","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Education Ministry, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Sensing Technology and Advanced Medical Instrument and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Education Ministry, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Sensing Technology and Advanced Medical Instrument and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bingqian","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Education Ministry, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Sensing Technology and Advanced Medical Instrument and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guojin","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Education Ministry, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Sensing Technology and Advanced Medical Instrument and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sunhong","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Education Ministry, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Sensing Technology and Advanced Medical Instrument and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongjian","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Drug Prevention and Control Technology, National Narcotics Laboratory Zhejiang Regional Center, Hangzhou 310053, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ping","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Education Ministry, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Sensing Technology and Advanced Medical Instrument and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"},{"name":"The MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Science & Brain-Machine Integration, The State Key Laboratory of Brain-Machine Intelligence, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"},{"name":"Cancer Center, Binjiang Institute of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boyang","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Drug Prevention and Control Technology, National Narcotics Laboratory Zhejiang Regional Center, Hangzhou 310053, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9607-1302","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liujing","family":"Zhuang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Education Ministry, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Sensing Technology and Advanced Medical Instrument and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"},{"name":"The MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Science & Brain-Machine Integration, The State Key Laboratory of Brain-Machine Intelligence, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000076","DOI":"10.1002\/adtp.202000076","article-title":"Polymeric Nanoparticles for Nasal Drug Delivery to the Brain: Relevance to Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"4","author":"Rabiee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Ther."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-021-00394-w","article-title":"Drug Delivery to the Central Nervous System","volume":"7","author":"Nance","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2009.07.030","article-title":"Structure and Function of the Blood\u2013Brain Barrier","volume":"37","author":"Abbott","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1039\/C5BM00383K","article-title":"Strategies for Transporting Nanoparticles across the Blood\u2013Brain Barrier","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xphs.2023.10.034","article-title":"Impact of P-Glycoprotein-Mediated Drug-Endogenous Substrate Interactions on Androgen and Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability","volume":"113","author":"Sunakawa","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.107.07109","article-title":"Modulation of P-Glycoprotein at the Blood-Brain Barrier: Opportunities to Improve Central Nervous System Pharmacotherapy","volume":"60","author":"Miller","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17947","DOI":"10.1039\/D5NR00870K","article-title":"Polymeric Nanoparticles for Efficient Nose-to-Brain Delivery","volume":"17","author":"Bolon","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2011.11.002","article-title":"Intranasal Delivery of Biologics to the Central Nervous System","volume":"64","author":"Lochhead","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alabsi, W., Eedara, B.B., Encinas-Basurto, D., Polt, R., and Mansour, H.M. (2022). Nose-to-Brain Delivery of Therapeutic Peptides as Nasal Aerosols. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14091870"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"63","article-title":"A Review on Microemulsion Drug Delivery System for Nasal Application","volume":"12","author":"Shekade","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13804","DOI":"10.1111\/cpr.13804","article-title":"The Application of Polymeric Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Carriers to Cells in Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"58","author":"Jin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Prolif."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chas.3c00069","article-title":"Nasal Drug Delivery System and Devices: An Overview on Health Effects","volume":"31","author":"Katare","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Health Saf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00e4nger, S., and Schindowski, K. (2018). Tailoring Formulations for Intranasal Nose-to-Brain Delivery: A Review on Architecture, Physico-Chemical Characteristics and Mucociliary Clearance of the Nasal Olfactory Mucosa. Pharmaceutics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics10030116"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fortuna, A., Schindowski, K., and Sonvico, F. (2022). Editorial: Intranasal Drug Delivery: Challenges and Opportunities. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.868986"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120994","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2021.120994","article-title":"Progress in Nasal Drug Delivery Systems","volume":"607","author":"Laffleur","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2019.12.014","article-title":"Progress and Perspectives of Brain-Targeting Lipid-Based Nanosystems via the Nasal Route in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"148","author":"Akel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2008.01.003","article-title":"The Blood-Brain Barrier in Health and Chronic Neurodegenerative Disorders","volume":"57","author":"Zlokovic","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00050.2017","article-title":"Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back","volume":"99","author":"Sweeney","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2015.310","article-title":"The TWEAK Receptor Fn14 Is a Potential Cell Surface Portal for Targeted Delivery of Glioblastoma Therapeutics","volume":"35","author":"Perez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13324","article-title":"Mfsd2a Is Critical for the Formation and Function of the Blood\u2013Brain Barrier","volume":"509","author":"Lacoste","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2017.12.025","article-title":"Mechanism of Intranasal Drug Delivery Directly to the Brain","volume":"195","author":"Crowe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"2088","article-title":"Nose to Brain Transport Pathways an Overview: Potential of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers in Nose to Brain Targeting","volume":"46","author":"Selvaraj","year":"2018","journal-title":"Artif. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.108.145565","article-title":"Novel Vasoconstrictor Formulation to Enhance Intranasal Targeting of Neuropeptide Therapeutics to the Central Nervous System","volume":"328","author":"Dhuria","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.3109\/10717549709051878","article-title":"Delivery of 125I-NGF to the Brain via the Olfactory Route","volume":"4","author":"Frey","year":"1997","journal-title":"Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-1998-1102","article-title":"Delivery of Nerve Growth Factor to the Brain via the Olfactory Pathway","volume":"1","author":"Chen","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2004.05.029","article-title":"Delivery of Insulin-like Growth Factor-I to the Rat Brain and Spinal Cord along Olfactory and Trigeminal Pathways Following Intranasal Administration","volume":"127","author":"Thorne","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1021\/mp100029t","article-title":"Trigeminal Pathways Deliver a Low Molecular Weight Drug from the Nose to the Brain and Orofacial Structures","volume":"7","author":"Johnson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2004.02.011","article-title":"Intranasal Administration of Interferon Beta Bypasses the Blood\u2013Brain Barrier to Target the Central Nervous System and Cervical Lymph Nodes: A Non-Invasive Treatment Strategy for Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"151","author":"Ross","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2009.02.006","article-title":"The Trigeminal Retrograde Transfer Pathway in the Treatment of Neurodegeneration","volume":"209","author":"Kyrkanides","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2017.05.001","article-title":"A Strategy for Bypassing the Blood-Brain Barrier: Facial Intradermal Brain-Targeted Delivery via the Trigeminal Nerve","volume":"258","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.10143","article-title":"Trigeminal Collaterals in the Nasal Epithelium and Olfactory Bulb: A Potential Route for Direct Modulation of Olfactory Information by Trigeminal Stimuli","volume":"444","author":"Schaefer","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70213","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.70213","article-title":"The Nasal\u2013Brain Drug Delivery Route: Mechanisms and Applications to Central Nervous System Diseases","volume":"6","author":"Qiu","year":"2025","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.2174\/1567201816666191029122740","article-title":"Drug Delivery and Targeting to the Brain Through Nasal Route: Mechanisms, Applications and Challenges","volume":"16","author":"Kashyap","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bioeng.10.061807.160544","article-title":"Targeted Drug-Aerosol Delivery in the Human Respiratory System","volume":"10","author":"Kleinstreuer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, T.-T.-L., and Duong, V.-A. (2025). Advancements in Nanocarrier Systems for Nose-to-Brain Drug Delivery. Pharmaceuticals, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph18050615"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2026007","DOI":"10.20517\/microstructures.2025.87","article-title":"Application of Polymeric Nanomaterials in Cancer Therapy: From Smart Delivery to Precision Therapy","volume":"6","author":"Sun","year":"2026","journal-title":"Microstructures"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2006.01.038","article-title":"Lectin-Conjugated PEG\u2013PLA Nanoparticles: Preparation and Brain Delivery after Intranasal Administration","volume":"27","author":"Gao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmt.2020.100556","article-title":"TAT Modification Facilitates Nose-to-Brain Transport of Intact mPEG-PDLLA Micelles: Evidence from Aggregation-Caused Quenching Probes","volume":"19","author":"Ahmad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2022.10.005","article-title":"Chitosan on the Surface of Nanoparticles for Enhanced Drug Delivery: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"351","author":"Elkomy","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Barros, C.T., Alves, T.F.R., Crescencio, K.M.M., Asami, J., Hausen, M.D.A., Duek, E.A.D.R., and Chaud, M.V. (2025). Chitosan-Coated Liposomes for Intranasal Delivery of Ghrelin: Enhancing Bioavailability to the Central Nervous System. Pharmaceutics, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17111493"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De La Harpe, K., Kondiah, P., Choonara, Y., Marimuthu, T., Du Toit, L., and Pillay, V. (2019). The Hemocompatibility of Nanoparticles: A Review of Cell\u2013Nanoparticle Interactions and Hemostasis. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8101209"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2014.06.053","article-title":"Quantitative Analysis of Drug Delivery to the Brain via Nasal Route","volume":"189","author":"Kozlovskaya","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2024.105564","article-title":"PLGA Nanoparticles for Nasal Drug Delivery","volume":"95","author":"Alghareeb","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1080\/03639045.2022.2090575","article-title":"Intranasal Drug Delivery of Sumatriptan Succinate-Loaded Polymeric Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Brain Targeting","volume":"48","author":"Yadav","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gandhi, S., Shastri, D.H., Shah, J., Nair, A.B., and Jacob, S. (2024). Nasal Delivery to the Brain: Harnessing Nanoparticles for Effective Drug Transport. Pharmaceutics, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16040481"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S102500","article-title":"Intranasal Agomelatine Solid Lipid Nanoparticles to Enhance Brain Delivery: Formulation, Optimization and In Vivo Pharmacokinetics","volume":"11","author":"Fatouh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Des. Dev. Ther."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alberto, M., Paiva-Santos, A.C., Veiga, F., and Pires, P.C. (2022). Lipid and Polymeric Nanoparticles: Successful Strategies for Nose-to-Brain Drug Delivery in the Treatment of Depression and Anxiety Disorders. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14122742"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2020.04.011","article-title":"QbD-Driven Development of Intranasal Lipid Nanoparticles for Depression Treatment","volume":"153","author":"Vitorino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s40824-021-00226-6","article-title":"Recent Advances in Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems: A Review","volume":"25","author":"Jeong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomater. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2023.07.011","article-title":"Mathematical Modelling of Microneedle-Mediated Transdermal Delivery of Drug Nanocarriers into Skin Tissue and Circulatory System","volume":"360","author":"Newell","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"303","article-title":"Going below and beyond the Surface: Microneedle Structure, Materials, Drugs, Fabrication, and Applications for Wound Healing and Tissue Regeneration","volume":"27","author":"Lyu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1458","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-023-01510-9","article-title":"Advancements in Microneedle Fabrication Techniques: Artificial Intelligence Assisted 3D-Printing Technology","volume":"14","author":"Biswas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2022.103119","article-title":"Step-Wise Micro-Fabrication Techniques of Microneedle Arrays with Applications in Transdermal Drug Delivery\u2014A Review","volume":"68","author":"Sonetha","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadh2213","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adh2213","article-title":"Blue-Ringed Octopus-Inspired Microneedle Patch for Robust Tissue Surface Adhesion and Active Injection Drug Delivery","volume":"9","author":"Zhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2403742","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202403742","article-title":"Acoustography by Beam Engineering and Acoustic Control Node: BEACON","volume":"11","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, J., Xu, D., Xuan, X., and He, H. (2021). Advances of Microneedles in Biomedical Applications. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26195912"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-023-01475-9","article-title":"Unravelling the Role of Microneedles in Drug Delivery: Principle, Perspectives, and Practices","volume":"14","author":"Babu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2024.01.013","article-title":"Microneedle-Mediated Nose-to-Brain Drug Delivery for Improved Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Treatment","volume":"366","author":"Ruan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, X., Zhao, J., and Fan, D. (2023). The Progress in the Application of Dissolving Microneedles in Biomedicine. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15204059"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-025-03246-w","article-title":"Dissolvable Microneedles with Their Design, Materials, and Limitations in Translation: A Technical Review","volume":"27","author":"Gopal","year":"2025","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2025.104330","article-title":"Dissolving Microneedles for Brain Delivery: Recent Advances and Challenges","volume":"30","author":"Kolekar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2582","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.4c00246","article-title":"Development of Telmisartan Nanocrystal-Based Dissolving Microneedle for Brain Targeting via Trigeminal Pathway: A Potentially Promising Treatment for Alzheimer\u2019s with an Improved Pharmacokinetic Profile","volume":"7","author":"Madani","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4660","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18189-y","article-title":"Glioma-Initiating Cells at Tumor Edge Gain Signals from Tumor Core Cells to Promote Their Malignancy","volume":"11","author":"Bastola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kr\u00f3likowska, K., B\u0142aszczak, K., \u0141awicki, S., Zajkowska, M., and Gudowska-Sawczuk, M. (2025). Glioblastoma\u2014A Contemporary Overview of Epidemiology, Classification, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment: A Review Article. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262412162"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4273","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201501425","article-title":"Inkjet Printing of Regenerated Silk Fibroin: From Printable Forms to Printable Functions","volume":"27","author":"Tao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gillespie, S.-L., McAvoy, N.C., Yung, D.E., Robertson, A., Plevris, J.N., and Hayes, P.C. (2021). Thrombin Is an Effective and Safe Therapy in the Management of Bleeding Gastric Varices. A Real-World Experience. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10040785"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3883","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-17717-0","article-title":"MGMT Genomic Rearrangements Contribute to Chemotherapy Resistance in Gliomas","volume":"11","author":"Oldrini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.01.021","article-title":"VEGF in Signaling and Disease: Beyond Discovery and Development","volume":"176","author":"Apte","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106606","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202106606","article-title":"Silk Microneedle Patch Capable of On-Demand Multidrug Delivery to the Brain for Glioblastoma Treatment","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101754","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2025.101754","article-title":"Hollow Microneedles as a Flexible Dosing Control Solution for Transdermal Drug Delivery","volume":"32","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2023.115468","article-title":"Soft Microfiber-Based Hollow Microneedle Array for Stretchable Microfluidic Biosensing Patch with Negative Pressure-Driven Sampling","volume":"237","author":"Chinnamani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-5173(88)90209-8","article-title":"Release and Absorption Rate Aspects of Intramuscularly Injected Pharmaceuticals","volume":"47","author":"Zuidema","year":"1988","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10069","DOI":"10.1002\/mds3.10069","article-title":"Transdermal Drug Delivery and Patches\u2014An Overview","volume":"3","author":"Bird","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Devices Sens."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1310\/hpj4103-265","article-title":"Lidocaine\/Tetracaine Patch","volume":"41","author":"Cada","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hosp. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"735","article-title":"The Effects of Epinephrine on Lidocaine Spinal Anesthesia: A Cross-Over Study","volume":"80","author":"Chiu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1002\/aic.10489","article-title":"Integrated Medical Feedback Systems for Drug Delivery","volume":"51","author":"Heller","year":"2005","journal-title":"AIChE J."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2019.10.004","article-title":"Intradermal and Transdermal Drug Delivery Using Microneedles\u2014Fabrication, Performance Evaluation and Application to Lymphatic Delivery","volume":"153","author":"Sabri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400014","DOI":"10.1002\/sstr.202400014","article-title":"Photothermal Microneedle Hydrogel Patch for Refractory Soft Tissue Injuries through Thermosensitized Anti-Inflammaging Modulation","volume":"5","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Small Struct."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, J., Wu, B., Yuan, P., Liu, Y., and Hu, C. (2024). Advances in Research of Hydrogel Microneedle-Based Delivery Systems for Disease Treatment. Pharmaceutics, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16121571"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2210903","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202210903","article-title":"Bioinspired Adaptable Indwelling Microneedles for Treatment of Diabetic Ulcers","volume":"35","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2025.102448","article-title":"Hydrogel-Forming Microneedles for the Treatment of Skin Diseases","volume":"35","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-025-03119-1","article-title":"Biomimetic Polydopamine Loaded with Janus Kinase Inhibitor for Synergistic Vitiligo Therapy via Hydrogel Microneedles","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmaterialslett.3c01317","article-title":"Transdermal Drug Delivery System: Current Status and Clinical Application of Microneedles","volume":"6","author":"Xue","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, X., Li, J., Hong, Y., Ruan, H., Long, M., Feng, N., and Zhang, Y. (2023). Advances and Prospects for Hydrogel-Forming Microneedles in Transdermal Drug Delivery. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202306.0220.v1"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2012.09.010","article-title":"Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications","volume":"64","author":"Hoffman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/S0939-6411(00)00090-4","article-title":"Hydrogels in Pharmaceutical Formulations","volume":"50","author":"Peppas","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tal\u00e9ns-Visconti, R., De Juli\u00e1n-Ortiz, J.V., Vila-Bus\u00f3, O., Diez-Sales, O., and N\u00e1cher, A. (2023). Intranasal Drug Administration in Alzheimer-Type Dementia: Towards Clinical Applications. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15051399"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16071","DOI":"10.1038\/natrevmats.2016.71","article-title":"Designing Hydrogels for Controlled Drug Delivery","volume":"1","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2021.120667","article-title":"Intranasal Co-Delivery of Berberine and Evodiamine by Self-Assembled Thermosensitive in-Situ Hydrogels for Improving Depressive Disorder","volume":"603","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2023.123748","article-title":"Enhanced the Treatment of Ischemic Stroke through Intranasal Temperature-Sensitive Hydrogels of Edaravone and Borneol Inclusion Complex","volume":"651","author":"Teng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4773","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.98088","article-title":"Brain-Targeted Intranasal Delivery of Protein-Based Gene Therapy for Treatment of Ischemic Stroke","volume":"14","author":"Ryu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2024.105549","article-title":"Synthesis of Chitosan-Graphene Oxide Thermosensitive in Situ Hydrogel for Nasal Delivery of Rasagiline Mesylate: In-Vitro-Ex Vivo Characterization","volume":"95","author":"Mahajan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00583-2","article-title":"Mucosal Vaccines\u2014Fortifying the Frontiers","volume":"22","author":"Lavelle","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1777","article-title":"Mucosal Vaccines: The Promise and the Challenge","volume":"6","author":"Neutra","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1439","article-title":"NALT-versus PEYER\u2019S-Patch-Mediated Mucosal Immunity","volume":"4","author":"Kiyono","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4947","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.8b07662","article-title":"Polysaccharide Nanoparticles Can Efficiently Modulate the Immune Response against an HIV Peptide Antigen","volume":"13","author":"Dacoba","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24650","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c10797","article-title":"Nanoplatform Based Intranasal Vaccines: Current Progress and Clinical Challenges","volume":"18","author":"Bai","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z., Yang, Y., Huang, L., Yuan, L., Huang, S., Zeng, Z., Cao, Y., Wei, X., Wang, X., and Shi, M. (2025). Nanotechnology-Driven Advances in Intranasal Vaccine Delivery Systems against Infectious Diseases. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1573037"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabn1413","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abn1413","article-title":"Intranasal Vaccination with Lipid-Conjugated Immunogens Promotes Antigen Transmucosal Uptake to Drive Mucosal and Systemic Immunity","volume":"14","author":"Hartwell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2015.1117714","article-title":"PLGA Particulate Delivery Systems for Subunit Vaccines: Linking Particle Properties to Immunogenicity","volume":"12","author":"Silva","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, X., Gao, Y., Shu, J., Zhang, C., and Zhao, K. (2022). Chitosan-Based Nanomaterial as Immune Adjuvant and Delivery Carrier for Vaccines. Vaccines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10111906"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2201401","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202201401","article-title":"Organ-on-a-Chip Models of the Blood\u2013Brain Barrier: Recent Advances and Future Prospects","volume":"18","author":"Kawakita","year":"2022","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1039\/D1LC00689D","article-title":"Microfluidic Organ-on-Chip System for Multi-Analyte Monitoring of Metabolites in 3D Cell Cultures","volume":"22","author":"Dornhof","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2184.2013.12089.x","article-title":"Pericellular Oxygen Monitoring with Integrated Sensor Chips for Reproducible Cell Culture Experiments","volume":"47","author":"Kieninger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Prolif."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129631","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.129631","article-title":"On-Chip Electrocatalytic NO Sensing Using Ruthenium Oxide Nanorods","volume":"334","author":"Tanumihardja","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexcr.2014.01.017","article-title":"3D High-Content Screening for the Identification of Compounds That Target Cells in Dormant Tumor Spheroid Regions","volume":"323","author":"Wenzel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naumovska, E., Aalderink, G., Wong Valencia, C., Kosim, K., Nicolas, A., Brown, S., Vulto, P., Erdmann, K.S., and Kurek, D. (2020). Direct On-Chip Differentiation of Intestinal Tubules from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21144964"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16022","DOI":"10.1038\/micronano.2016.22","article-title":"Multi-Analyte Biosensor Interface for Real-Time Monitoring of 3D Microtissue Spheroids in Hanging-Drop Networks","volume":"2","author":"Misun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2022.115010","article-title":"In Vitro Interactions of Aerosol Formulations with Human Nasal Epithelium Using Real-Time Monitoring of Drug Transport in a Nasal Mucosa-on-a-Chip","volume":"223","author":"Gholizadeh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Usman Khan, M., Cai, X., Shen, Z., Mekonnen, T., Kourmatzis, A., Cheng, S., and Gholizadeh, H. (2023). Challenges in the Development and Application of Organ-on-Chips for Intranasal Drug Delivery Studies. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15051557"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2016.07.010","article-title":"Application of RPMI 2650 Nasal Cell Model to a 3D Printed Apparatus for the Testing of Drug Deposition and Permeation of Nasal Products","volume":"107","author":"Pozzoli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nunes, G.A.M.D.A., Da Silva, A.K.A., Faria, R.M., Santos, K.S., Aguiar, A.D.C., Barreto Mota Da Costa, L., Luz, G.V.D.S., Carneiro, M.L.B., Rosa, M.F.F., and Joanitti, G.A. (2025). State-of-the-Art Organ-on-Chip Models and Designs for Medical Applications: A Systematic Review. Biomimetics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics10080524"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocarto.2025.100686","article-title":"Organ-on-Chip Technologies: Novel Tools with the Potential to Revolutionize Osteoarthritis Research and Clinical Development","volume":"7","author":"Paggi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil. Open"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2021.1873274","article-title":"Real-Time Quantitative Monitoring of in Vitro Nasal Drug Delivery by a Nasal Epithelial Mucosa-on-a-Chip Model","volume":"18","author":"Gholizadeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Leslie, D.C., Domansky, K., Hamilton, G.A., Bahinski, A., and Ingber, D.E. (2011, January 2\u20136). Aerosol Drug Delivery for Lung on a Chip. Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Miniaturized Systems for Chemistry and Life Sciences, Seattle, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coelec.2017.05.001","article-title":"Applications of Electrochemical Sensors: Forensic Drug Analysis","volume":"3","author":"Shaw","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koch, E.V., Bendas, S., Nehlsen, K., May, T., Reichl, S., and Dietzel, A. (2023). The Path from Nasal Tissue to Nasal Mucosa on Chip: Part 2\u2014Advanced Microfluidic Nasal In Vitro Model for Drug Absorption Testing. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15102439"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1517\/17425247.2010.495981","article-title":"Chitosan-Based Hydrogels for Nasal Drug Delivery: From Inserts to Nanoparticles","volume":"7","author":"Luppi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1039\/C3LC51208H","article-title":"Live Human Nasal Epithelial Cells (hNECs) on Chip for in Vitro Testing of Gaseous Formaldehyde Toxicity via Airway Delivery","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1578","DOI":"10.1039\/C6LC01564F","article-title":"In Vitro Nasal Mucosa Gland-like Structure Formation on a Chip","volume":"17","author":"Na","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2025.123739","article-title":"Engineering Biomimetic Tissue Barrier Models on Chips: From Design and Fabrication to Applications in Disease Modeling and Drug Screening","volume":"327","author":"Nasiri","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1097\/BOR.0000000000000681","article-title":"The Gut Microbiome-Joint Connection: Implications in Osteoarthritis","volume":"32","author":"Favazzo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brandl, S., and Reindl, M. (2023). Blood\u2013Brain Barrier Breakdown in Neuroinflammation: Current In Vitro Models. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241612699"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2021.02.012","article-title":"Intranasal Delivery of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers, Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanoemulsions: A Current Overview of in Vivo Studies","volume":"11","author":"Costa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1996","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.1996","article-title":"Nanomedicine Therapies for Pediatric Diseases","volume":"16","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"WIREs Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21225","DOI":"10.1038\/srep21225","article-title":"Co-Delivery of Doxorubicin and Curcumin by pH-Sensitive Prodrug Nanoparticle for Combination Therapy of Cancer","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, H.X. (2025). Beyond the Needle: Innovative Microneedle-Based Transdermal Vaccination. Medicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicines12010004"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.11124\/JBIES-24-00376","article-title":"Effectiveness and Safety of Intranasal Fentanyl for Pain Management in Infants Aged 0\u20136 Months: A Systematic Review Protocol","volume":"23","author":"McCord","year":"2025","journal-title":"JBI Evid. Synth."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2023.103618","article-title":"US FDA 505(b)(2) NDA Clinical, CMC and Regulatory Strategy Concepts to Expedite Drug Development","volume":"28","author":"Salminen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-020-00891-5","article-title":"Intranasal Drug Delivery: Opportunities and Toxicologic Challenges during Drug Development","volume":"12","author":"Keller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2025.2583254","article-title":"Challenges and Strategies for Nose-to-Brain Delivery in Treating Neurological Disorders","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4526","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.87266","article-title":"Organ-on-a-Chip Meets Artificial Intelligence in Drug Evaluation","volume":"13","author":"Deng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, D., Lv, X., Jiang, H., Fan, Y., Liu, K., Wang, H., and Deng, Y. (2025). AI-Enabled Microfluidics for Respiratory Pathogen Detection. Sensors, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25185791"},{"key":"ref_134","unstructured":"Chidiac, C. (2024). Organ-on-a-Chip Technology: Innovations, Applications, and Future Horizons, Microfluidics Innovation Center."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/8\/2523\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T04:17:11Z","timestamp":1777436231000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/8\/2523"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,19]]},"references-count":134,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s26082523"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26082523","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,19]]}}}