{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T04:48:28Z","timestamp":1777092508816,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776902400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2020YFA0713501"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFA0713501"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Reliable high-precision positioning in railway tunnels is essential for intelligent train operation and safety monitoring, yet GNSS signals are severely degraded by blockage and multipath. This paper proposes a deployment-oriented numerical framework to optimize pseudolite layouts in tunnels by explicitly modeling visibility obstruction and controlling worst-case geometry along the train trajectory. A high-fidelity 3D tunnel\u2013train model is established, in which line-of-sight (LoS) availability is screened under vehicle occlusion and trajectory-level geometric quality is evaluated accordingly. Instead of optimizing only the average PDOP, the proposed framework minimizes the trajectory 90th-percentile PDOP (qPDOP) to suppress tail-risk geometric degradation, while interpreting PDOP as an error amplification factor that directly affects positioning reliability under measurement noise and local multipath. The core contribution is a Voronoi-partition-constrained improved genetic algorithm (IGA) for tunnel pseudolite deployment. Voronoi partitioning enforces segment-wise coverage by requiring at least one pseudolite in each partition cell and avoids clustering-induced blind zones. Meanwhile, the IGA incorporates improved search and constraint-handling mechanisms to satisfy practical engineering requirements, including feasible installation regions, minimum spacing, mounting-face balance (ceiling\/side walls), communication range, and continuous satellite visibility. Comparative simulations and ablation studies demonstrate that the proposed method achieves more uniform coverage and significantly improves full-trajectory geometric stability, reducing high-quantile PDOP and mitigating local spikes in occlusion-sensitive sections under cost-constrained sparse deployments. The proposed framework provides a practical and flexible toolchain for designing positioning-oriented pseudolite infrastructures in underground transportation environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26092596","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T08:11:14Z","timestamp":1776931874000},"page":"2596","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Application of Improved Genetic Algorithm Based on Voronoi Partitioning in Pseudolite Deployment for Tunnel Positioning Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Kun","family":"Xie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chenglin","family":"Cai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation and Electronic Information, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhouwang","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation and Electronic Information, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jundao","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"53","article-title":"Study on Network Layout in Laisat Positioning Systems","volume":"29","author":"Ruixue","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mil. 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