{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T09:11:22Z","timestamp":1777367482464,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777075200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"THE ICELANDIC RESEARCH FUND PROJECT GRANT","award":["2410471-052"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2410471-052"]}]},{"name":"THE ICELANDIC TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT FUND","award":["1910271"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1910271"]}]},{"name":"THE ICELANDIC TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT FUND","award":["2422920"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2422920"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Providing reliable sensory feedback is one of the most challenging aspects of transfemoral prosthetics, motivating the development of intuitive vibrotactile interfaces capable of conveying information about limb position in real-time. The aim of this study was to develop a vibrotactile feedback prototype and examine which interstimulus intervals (ISIs) and vibration waveforms might best enhance recognition of sequential tactile patterns. The results will be used to inform the development of a prototype to be tested on participants with transfemoral amputation where prosthetic feedback is provided. A forearm-mounted six-actuator feedback system, encoding eight lower-limb configurations, was used in two experiments with healthy adults. Experiment 1 assessed recognition accuracy across ISIs from 10 to 110 ms, while Experiment 2 compared sinusoidal and square waveforms under matched conditions. Recognition accuracy was high across all tested conditions, with no significant effects of ISI (p = 0.79) or waveform type (p = 0.17). These results indicate that participants were able to interpret spatially distributed vibrotactile patterns even under rapid temporal sequencing and with differing signal shapes. The system therefore offers design flexibility for real-time prosthetic feedback, suggesting that fast update rates may be achievable without a statistically detectable reduction in perceptual clarity within the tested conditions. These findings provide practical guidance for developing robust, user-friendly sensory substitution systems intended to increase proprioceptive awareness in transfemoral prosthesis users.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26092664","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T08:12:31Z","timestamp":1777363951000},"page":"2664","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Assessing Interstimulus Interval and Waveform Effects on Vibrotactile Pattern Recognition on the Forearm for Transfemoral Prosthetic Sensory Feedback"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3069-6976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammadmahdi","family":"Karimi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0606-991X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krist\u00edn","family":"Briem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4168-4886","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1rni","family":"Kristj\u00e1nsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9435-2258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sigur\u00f0ur","family":"Brynj\u00f3lfsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1960-0263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Runar","family":"Unnthorsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1007\/s44174-023-00087-8","article-title":"Overcoming Challenges and Innovations in Orthopedic Prosthesis Design: An Interdisciplinary Perspective","volume":"2","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed. 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