{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T09:09:58Z","timestamp":1778576998459,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]],"date-time":"2026-04-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777161600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Automotive Coalition for Traffic Safety, Inc.","award":["693JJ92350015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["693JJ92350015"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite many efforts to curtail drunk driving, alcohol-related traffic fatalities and injuries continue to be a major public health problem in the United States (U.S.) and most of the world. Technologies exist that prevent an automobile from starting if the driver\u2019s breath alcohol exceeds 20 milligrams per deciliter (mg\/dL), but these devices are only fitted to vehicles of individuals who have been convicted of Driving Under the Influence (DUI). A new approach must be taken to reduce the incidence of drunk driving by integrating an alcohol sensor system in vehicles as part of the delivered hardware. The system must be fast, accurate, and contactless\u2014meaning that a forced exhalation is not required to measure the concentration of alcohol on the breath. We report on a novel device, the Driver Alcohol Detection System for Safety (DADSS) Breath Alcohol Sensor System, which uses the mid-infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum to concurrently monitor alcohol and expired carbon dioxide (CO2) to accurately quantify the breath alcohol concentration in samples that have been diluted in the atmosphere before being measured. The system was validated in a research laboratory with 70 male and female volunteers in 187 individual study days. Participants were given various doses of alcohol to consume and then breath and blood samples were collected simultaneously. Pearson correlation coefficients between the DADSS Breath Alcohol Sensor system and blood samples indicate a strong correlation between the measures, with an overall Pearson correlation of 0.8875 over an alcohol concentration range of 0\u2013220 mg\/dL. These results indicate that incorporating the DADSS system into motor vehicles has the potential to reduce the incidence of drunk driving.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26092685","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T08:12:31Z","timestamp":1777363951000},"page":"2685","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Development of the DADSS* Breath Alcohol Sensor System for Automobiles: Technical Design and Human Participant Testing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6414-8336","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kianna","family":"Pirooz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"KEA Technologies Inc., 1 Monarch Drive Suite 100, Littleton, MA 01640, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Timothy","family":"Allen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KEA Technologies Inc., 1 Monarch Drive Suite 100, Littleton, MA 01640, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rebecca","family":"Spicer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Impact Research, LLC., 7170 Riverwood Dr., Suite A, Columbia, MD 21046, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-9049-0558","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sam","family":"Kalmar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Behavioral Psychopharmacology Research Laboratory (BPRL), McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Behavioral Psychopharmacology Research Laboratory (BPRL), McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jane","family":"McNeil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Behavioral Psychopharmacology Research Laboratory (BPRL), McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gordana","family":"Vitaliano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Behavioral Psychopharmacology Research Laboratory (BPRL), McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5823-3833","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Scott E.","family":"Lukas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Behavioral Psychopharmacology Research Laboratory (BPRL), McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"CDC (2024, July 14). Facts About U.S. Deaths from Excessive Alcohol Use. Alcohol Use, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/alcohol\/facts-stats\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E109","DOI":"10.5888\/pcd11.130293","article-title":"Contribution of Excessive Alcohol Consumption to Deaths and Years of Potential Life Lost in the United States","volume":"11","author":"Stahre","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prev. Chronic Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.289.1.70","article-title":"Binge drinking among US adults","volume":"289","author":"Naimi","year":"2003","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (2024, July 14). The Healthcare Professional\u2019s Core Resource on Alcohol, Available online: https:\/\/www.niaaa.nih.gov\/health-professionals-communities\/core-resource-on-alcohol\/medical-complications-common-alcohol-related-concerns#:~:text=Heavy%20alcohol%20use%20causes%209%2C000,heart%20attack%2C78%20and%20stroke.&text=Current%20research%20indicates%20that%20overall,the%20less%20alcohol%2C%20the%20better."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2006-1517","article-title":"Binge drinking and associated health risk behaviors among high school students","volume":"119","author":"Miller","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (2024, July 14). Underage Drinking in the United States (Ages 12 to 20), Available online: https:\/\/www.niaaa.nih.gov\/alcohols-effects-health\/alcohol-topics\/alcohol-facts-and-statistics\/underage-drinking-united-states-ages-12-20."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"National Center for Statistics and Analysis (2024, July 14). Alcohol-Impaired Driving: 2023 Data, Available online: https:\/\/crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov\/Api\/Public\/ViewPublication\/813713."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verster, J.C., Pandi-Perumal, S.R., Ramaekers, J.G., and de Gier, J.J. (2009). Simulator studies of drug-induced driving impairment. Drugs, Driving and Traffic Safety, Birkh\u00e4user.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7643-9923-8"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.12227","article-title":"A review of alcohol-impaired driving: The role of blood alcohol concentration and complexity of the driving task","volume":"58","author":"Martin","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1080\/15389580490465201","article-title":"Effects of alcohol and other drugs on driver performance","volume":"5","author":"Ogden","year":"2004","journal-title":"Traffic Inj. Prev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2006.02.004","article-title":"Individual difference factors in risky driving: The roles of anger\/hostility, conscientiousness, and sensation-seeking","volume":"38","author":"Schwebel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2007.12.018","article-title":"Acute disinhibiting effects of alcohol as a factor in risky driving behavior","volume":"95","author":"Fillmore","year":"2008","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2020.106439","article-title":"Driving under the influence of Alcohol: Findings from the NSDUH, 2002-2017","volume":"108","author":"Oh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2024, October 23). NHTSA: Traffic Crashes Cost America $340 Billion in 2019|NHTSA, Available online: https:\/\/www.nhtsa.gov\/press-releases\/traffic-crashes-cost-america-billions-2019."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Blincoe, L., Miller, T.R., Wang, J.-S., Swedler, D., Coughlin, T., Lawrence, B., Guo, F., Klauer, S., and Dingus, T. (2026, April 06). The Economic and Societal Impact of Motor Vehicle Crashes, 2019 (Revised), Available online: https:\/\/crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov\/Api\/Public\/ViewPublication\/813403.pdf."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2026, April 06). FBI Crime Date Explorer, Available online: https:\/\/cde.ucr.cjis.gov\/LATEST\/webapp\/#\/pages\/explorer\/crime\/arrest."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-0738(02)00417-6","article-title":"Comparison of ethanol concentrations in venous blood and end-expired breath during a controlled drinking study","volume":"132","author":"Jones","year":"2003","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Vanlaar, G.W., Lyon, C., Simmons, S., Wicklund, C., and Robertson, R.D. (2024, October 23). Road Safety Monitors\u2014National Opinion Polls on Alcohol-Impaired Driving in the United States Tirf USA, January 2023. Available online: https:\/\/tirf.us\/projects\/road-safety-monitors-national-opinion-polls-on-alcohol-impaired-driving-in-the-united-states\/."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.15288\/jsad.2014.75.299","article-title":"State variation in underreporting of alcohol involvement on death certificates: Motor vehicle traffic crash fatalities as an example","volume":"75","author":"Castle","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.15288\/jsa.1985.46.482","article-title":"Skills performance at low blood alcohol levels","volume":"46","author":"Moskowitz","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Stud. Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1080\/09595239100185211","article-title":"Alcohol and driving: Is the 0.05% blood alcohol concentration limit justified?","volume":"10","author":"Howat","year":"1991","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2017.03.001","article-title":"Effects of acute alcohol consumption on measures of simulated driving: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"102","author":"Irwin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-016-4519-z","article-title":"A pooled analysis of on-the-road highway driving studies in actual traffic measuring standard deviation of lateral position (i.e., \u201cweaving\u201d) while driving at a blood alcohol concentration of 0.5 g\/L","volume":"234","author":"Jongen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2014.02.003","article-title":"Divided attention in young drivers under the influence of alcohol","volume":"49","author":"Freydier","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Saf. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7163\/ac2589","article-title":"The physics of human breathing: Flow, timing, volume, and pressure parameters for normal, on-demand, and ventilator respiration","volume":"15","author":"Pleil","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Breath Res."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"H\u00f6k, B., Pettersson, H., and Andersson, G. (2006, January 1). Contactless Measurement of Breath Alcohol. Presented at the Micro Structure Workshop, V\u00e4ster\u00e5s, Sweden. Available online: https:\/\/www.academia.edu\/25539881\/Contactless_measurement_of_breath_alcohol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"111","article-title":"Statistical analysis of blood- to breath-alcohol ratio data in the logarithm-transformed and non-transformed modes","volume":"34","author":"Labianca","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00444687","article-title":"A microanalysis of ethanol-induced disruption of body sway and psychomotor performance in women","volume":"98","author":"Lukas","year":"1989","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1037\/a0032542","article-title":"The Subjective Effects of Alcohol Scale: Development and psychometric evaluation of a novel assessment tool for measuring subjective response to alcohol","volume":"25","author":"Morean","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Lukas, S.E., Zaouk, A., Ryan, E., McNeil, J., Shepherd, J., Willis, M., Dalal, N., and Schwartz, K. (2017, January 5\u20138). Driver Alcohol Detection System for Safety (DADSS)\u2014Preliminary Human Testing Results. Presented at the 25th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV)National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Detroit, MI, USA. Available online: https:\/\/trid.trb.org\/View\/1485122."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/32.7.505","article-title":"Comparison among plasma, serum, and whole blood ethanol concentrations: Impact of storage conditions and collection tubes","volume":"32","author":"Penetar","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(19)50864-X","article-title":"Tungstic acid precipitation of blood proteins","volume":"206","author":"Berkman","year":"1954","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)87378-1","article-title":"A SYSTEM OF BLOOD ANALYSIS","volume":"38","author":"Folin","year":"1919","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-4347(92)80534-W","article-title":"Chromatographic methods for blood alcohol determination","volume":"580","author":"Tagliaro","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2024, October 23). PAS IV Flashlight Passive Alcohol Tester. Available online: https:\/\/alcopro.com\/product\/pas-iv-flashlight\/."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1186\/s12954-021-00567-4","article-title":"The hazardous (mis)perception of Self-estimated Alcohol intoxication and Fitness to drivE\u2014An avoidable health risk: The SAFE randomised trial","volume":"18","author":"Geis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harm Reduct. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1037\/a0038126","article-title":"Alcohol effects on simulated driving performance and self-perceptions of impairment in DUI offenders","volume":"22","author":"Fillmore","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/0091-3057(88)90012-3","article-title":"Blood ethanol levels, self-rated ethanol effects and cognitive-perceptual tasks","volume":"29","author":"Lex","year":"1988","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/9\/2685\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T08:14:39Z","timestamp":1778573679000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/9\/2685"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s26092685"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26092685","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]]}}}