{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T15:08:46Z","timestamp":1785424126192,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778544000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009157","name":"National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["90SFGE0045-01-00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["90SFGE0045-01-00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009157","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["90SFGE0045-01-00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["90SFGE0045-01-00"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05r5c7c30","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Robot-assisted telerehabilitation (RAT) combines rehabilitation robotics with digital health workflows to extend access to upper-limb (UL) therapy after stroke. Mixed reality (MR) may support therapist\u2013patient interaction and task visualization; however, early-stage systems require rigorous evaluation of safety and usability before deployment in the home. In a formative, mixed-methods usability study conducted in a controlled setting using a telerehabilitation workflow, six individuals post-stroke (\u22653 months) and six occupational therapists (OTs) completed a single supervised session with a desktop-mounted end-effector type therapeutic robot (iTbot) integrated with Microsoft HoloLens 2. Participants performed structured passive and active UL exercises while therapists supervised and interacted with the system via the MR control interfaces. Safety was evaluated by documenting observed adverse events and safety-stop activations. Usability and user experience were assessed using the System Usability Scale (SUS), study-specific satisfaction questionnaires (reported with scale ranges), and semi-structured follow-up interviews analyzed using thematic analysis. All participants completed the session without observed adverse events or safety-stop activations. Overall usability was favorable, with a mean (SD) SUS total score of 78.3 (15.9) out of 100 (stroke: 74.2 [18.1]; occupational therapists: 82.5 [13.5]). Qualitative feedback indicated that MR was perceived as engaging and intuitive by many users, while also identifying implementation needs relevant to real-world telerehabilitation, including clearer onboarding, simplification of certain MR interactions, and improved physical interfaces (e.g., handle options). Therapists highlighted workflow considerations for remote supervision and patient independence. Together, these findings support progression to multi-session, in-home studies to quantify remote assistance needs, technical reliability, adherence, and clinical outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26103043","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T12:33:37Z","timestamp":1778589217000},"page":"3043","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Formative Evaluation of Safety and Usability of a Mixed-Reality Robot-Assisted Telerehabilitation System for Post-Stroke Upper-Limb Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3945-3405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md Mahafuzur Rahaman","family":"Khan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4160-4129","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kishor","family":"Lakshminarayanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of School of Healthcare Science and Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4553-7130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Inga","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation Sciences & Technology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2092-3328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer","family":"Barber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Froedtert Hospital, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9357-8930","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erin M. McGonigle","family":"Ketchum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6370-8757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad H.","family":"Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16481","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.16481","article-title":"Global, regional, and national epidemiology of ischemic stroke from 1990 to 2021","volume":"31","author":"Hou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. 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