{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:22:39Z","timestamp":1785410559353,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779062400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62006246, 82172058, 62376112, 81771926, 61763022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62006246, 82172058, 62376112, 81771926, 61763022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["62006246, 82172058, 62376112, 81771926, 61763022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62006246, 82172058, 62376112, 81771926, 61763022"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023M734315"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023M734315"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2023M734315"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023M734315"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0426zh255","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the Xi'an Science and Technology Association Youth Talent Support Program","award":["959202413100"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["959202413100"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Auditory neurofeedback training (NFT) based on brain\u2013computer interfaces (BCIs) has recently entered the precision motor domain as a task-embedded neural state regulation paradigm. Compared to traditional standalone NFT approaches (e.g., relaxation or attention training designed to enhance general cognitive abilities), task-embedded paradigms integrate feedback directly into the motor task execution process. However, this design inevitably creates a dual-task scenario, and the effects of such a scenario on neural activity and behavioral performance have received limited systematic investigation in the existing literature. This study designed and implemented a closed-loop BCI system employing five-level heartbeat sound feedback and used this system as a research platform to examine the immediate neural mechanism changes and potential dual-task interference effects induced by single-session auditory NFT in moderately skilled shooters. The system maps real-time EEG features onto graded auditory signals varying in playback rate and volume intensity, incorporating a dynamic threshold adjustment mechanism. Twenty-two moderately skilled shooters completed three within-subject conditions (no-sound baseline, SMR enhancement, and theta suppression) in a single session with 32-channel EEG and behavioral data recorded simultaneously. Analyses employed whole-brain cluster-based permutation tests, cross-frequency coupling analysis, and functional connectivity analysis. Cluster-based permutation tests revealed that theta feedback induced a significant frontal 4\u20137 Hz suppression cluster (cluster p = 0.004), whereas SMR feedback did not produce significant 12\u201315 Hz enhancement at the group level. Theta feedback elicited cross-frequency spillover as follows: sensorimotor SMR power decreased significantly in theta responders (d = \u22120.69), with frontal theta and sensorimotor SMR changes positively correlated (r = 0.67, p &lt; 0.001). Functional connectivity analysis using debiased weighted phase lag index (dwPLI) further demonstrated significant theta-band network reorganization (cluster p = 0.034). At the neural level, clear modulation effects were observed, but shooting ring values did not improve significantly under feedback conditions, and aiming time was significantly prolonged\u2014a behavioral pattern consistent with potential dual-task interference from task-embedded auditory feedback. Single-session auditory NFT can act on the prefrontal cognitive control network and induce cross-frequency network reorganization, but the feedback channel itself constitutes a parallel task that may limit the short-term transfer of induced neural states to behavioral performance. This study examined the neural mechanisms of task-embedded auditory NFT and reported the dual-task costs that have been less characterized in prior \u201ctask + feedback\u201d research, providing design considerations and preliminary mechanistic evidence for future development of auditory NFT in precision motor skill training.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26103187","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T14:40:31Z","timestamp":1779115231000},"page":"3187","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Design and Experimental Investigation of a Multi-Level Heartbeat Sound Feedback-Based Neurofeedback System: Neural Mechanisms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Xiuyan","family":"Hu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Engineering, Chinese People\u2019s Armed Police Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710086, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingge","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Engineering, Chinese People\u2019s Armed Police Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710086, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yijing","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Engineering, Chinese People\u2019s Armed Police Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710086, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ting","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Engineering, Chinese People\u2019s Armed Police Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710086, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinyu","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Engineering, Chinese People\u2019s Armed Police Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710086, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunfa","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Engineering and Automation, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2715-2296","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anmin","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Engineering, Chinese People\u2019s Armed Police Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710086, China"},{"name":"School of Life Science and Technology, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1123\/kr.2017-0056","article-title":"Brain Dynamics and Motor Behavior: A Case for Efficiency and Refinement for Superior Performance","volume":"7","author":"Hatfield","year":"2018","journal-title":"Kinesiol. 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