{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T10:02:37Z","timestamp":1784800957725,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Electric Green\/Enertechnos Ltd."}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wireless power transfer (WPT) systems for electric vehicles require reliable foreign object detection (FOD) mechanisms both during and prior to power transfer to ensure operational safety and efficiency. The primary purpose of this study was to develop a foreign object detection system to ensure that no objects are present in the area of magnetic coupling (between primary and secondary coils) prior to initiating power transfer. Conventional FOD techniques based on impedance, visual light, or thermal monitoring provide limited spatial information and are sensitive to coil misalignment. This paper proposes a machine learning-based FOD approach using a planar Magnetic Inductance Tomography (MIT) sensor array that enables spatial electromagnetic sensing for early detection and localisation of conductive foreign objects. A dataset comprising 17,800 measurement frames was collected using a custom STM32-based data acquisition system in the absence of (prior to) power transfer. Likewise, a dataset comprising 300 sets of measurement frames was collected during power transfer, in which each frame contains 120 electromagnetic sensor readings. This capture methodology coincides with the detection requirements of live WPT systems. Four classification models, including Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, XGBoost, and Multi-Layer Perceptron, were evaluated. To enhance robustness against sensor drift and environmental variations, feature-engineering techniques incorporating statistical, temporal, frequency-domain, and derivative-based features were developed. Experimental results demonstrate high detection accuracy under both controlled and real-world conditions. The proposed approach demonstrates the feasibility of integrating machine learning-based MIT sensing into wireless EV charging infrastructure for reliable foreign object detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26113486","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T17:11:01Z","timestamp":1780333861000},"page":"3486","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Machine Learning-Based Foreign Object Detection in Wireless EV Charging Using Planar Magnetic Induction Tomography"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2474-6982","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdul","family":"Abdul Vahid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Electric Green Ltd., Kingston-upon-Thames KT1 3GZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1219-8598","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dorian","family":"Vargas-Reighley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electric Green Ltd., Kingston-upon-Thames KT1 3GZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8374-7932","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjamin","family":"Warrington","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electric Green Ltd., Kingston-upon-Thames KT1 3GZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0510-7504","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gavin","family":"Dingley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Tomography Laboratory (ETL), University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6341-9592","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuchehr","family":"Soleimani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Tomography Laboratory (ETL), University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41218","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3267164","article-title":"Review of Electric Vehicle Charging Technologies, Standards, Architectures, and Converter Configurations","volume":"11","author":"Acharige","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120559","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2937891","article-title":"Compensation Topologies in IPT Systems: Standards, Requirements, Classification, Analysis, Comparison and Application","volume":"7","author":"Shevchenko","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44622","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2908866","article-title":"Foreign Object Detection in a Wireless Power Transfer System Using Symmetrical Coil Sets","volume":"7","author":"Xiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2021.3057603","article-title":"Foreign Object Detection in Wireless Power Transfer Systems","volume":"58","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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