{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T09:13:36Z","timestamp":1791018816750,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781222400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TSI-069100-2023-0014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TSI-069100-2023-0014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["TSI-069100-2023-0014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TSI-069100-2023-0014"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/019w4f821","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2023-148285OB-C41"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-148285OB-C41"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["PID2023-148285OB-C41"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-148285OB-C41"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05r0vyz12","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011698","name":"Regional Government of Castile-La Mancha","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SBPLY\/24\/ 180225\/000105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SBPLY\/24\/ 180225\/000105"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011698","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["SBPLY\/24\/ 180225\/000105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SBPLY\/24\/ 180225\/000105"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02jv91m18","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Horizon Europe program","award":["GA N\u00ba 101213323"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GA N\u00ba 101213323"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The exponential growth of Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystems is driving a paradigm shift from centralized cloud computing towards decentralized architectures to mitigate latency and bandwidth constraints. While edge computing addresses some of these challenges, data transmission to local gateways still raises critical security and privacy concerns. This study explores the Compute Continuum by pushing intelligence to the extreme edge using TinyML. We propose a secure, privacy-preserving multimodal biometric authentication system designed for resource-constrained embedded devices. Our solution implements a hierarchical processing chain: an ultra-lightweight person-detection filter acts as an intelligent wake-up mechanism, followed by robust facial and voice authentication modules. Operating as a strict hierarchical pipeline, the system achieves a combined False Acceptance Rate (FAR) of just 0.12%. Experimental results on an ESP32 microcontroller demonstrate exceptional energy efficiency, requiring only 0.15 J per inference cycle. This allows the system to operate autonomously for over 39 h of continuous inference on a standard 600 mAh battery, proving the viability of standalone, privacy-by-design biometric sensors in intelligent IoT environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26123756","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T05:59:47Z","timestamp":1781503187000},"page":"3756","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Extreme Edge Computing for Secure and Private Multimodal Biometric Identification in Intelligent IoT Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3188-4633","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Antonio","family":"de la Torre","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Technology and Information Systems Department, School of Computer Science, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4688-8650","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Rinc\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technology and Information Systems Department, School of Computer Science, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8019-9640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Soledad","family":"Escolar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technology and Information Systems Department, School of Computer Science, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6907-6527","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Caruso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics and Physics \u2018Ennio De Giorgi\u2019, Palazzo Fiorini, Campus Ecotekne, 73100 Lecce, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7641-4643","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juli\u00e1n","family":"Caba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technology and Information Systems Department, School of Computer Science, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1931-3245","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jes\u00fas","family":"Barba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technology and Information Systems Department, School of Computer Science, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shalini, V.B. 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