{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T17:54:29Z","timestamp":1785434069438,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"U.S. National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IIS-2205093"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IIS-2205093"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["IIS-2205093"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IIS-2205093"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/021nxhr62","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Low back pain (LBP) is a major global health problem and can result in a variety of movement impairments. Advances in smart technology have enabled the collection of novel streams of movement data, and machine learning (ML) methods have been increasingly used for data analysis. However, many existing technologies remain expensive and unsuitable for widespread clinical use, and ML approaches have largely focused on distinguishing people with LBP from healthy controls rather than identifying meaningful subgroups within the LBP population. Motion Tape (MT) is a recently developed wearable strain sensor that translates skin deformation from underlying movement and muscle engagement into electrical signals. In this exploratory study involving 10 participants with LBP, we demonstrate that MT data from six sensors applied on the lower back capture rich movement information capable of characterizing movement patterns among participants with LBP. We propose a feature engineering approach based on biomechanical features as well as time-series causal discovery applied to multivariate sensor time-series data to extract directed inter-segment coordination patterns. We further develop an exploratory subgroup discovery pipeline by aggregating clustering coassociation information across diverse movement tasks. Our causal coordination features show promising discriminative information across several movement types, capturing aspects of motor control not reflected in amplitude-based or embedding-based features alone, such as asymmetries and movement restrictions. Preliminary ensemble clustering analysis indicates three potential LBP subgroups distinguished by biomechanical and inter-segment coordination patterns, which may reflect varied strategies under different movement demands. We investigate the differences in clinical characteristics among these LBP subgroups. We show that time-series foundation models are not well suited for LBP subgrouping due to their uninterpretability, which is improved in our feature engineering pipeline. This framework could reveal additional subgroups with larger cohorts and may generalize to other sensor modalities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26123800","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T15:00:48Z","timestamp":1781535648000},"page":"3800","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Movement-Based Low Back Pain Subgroups Using Motion Tape Strain Data with Biomechanical and Causal Feature Engineering"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2058-9299","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aarti","family":"Lalwani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8284-4789","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara P.","family":"Gombatto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physical Therapy, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2133-8638","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yasmin","family":"Velazquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8467-2984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elijah","family":"Wyckoff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Active, Responsive, Multifunctional, and Ordered-Materials Research (ARMOR) Laboratory, Department of Structural Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4967-556X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pratham","family":"Yashwante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7334-3042","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kevin","family":"Patrick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qualcomm Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"},{"name":"School of Public Health, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1448-6251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenneth J.","family":"Loh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Active, Responsive, Multifunctional, and Ordered-Materials Research (ARMOR) Laboratory, Department of Structural Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8491-7937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rose","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6485-0141","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emilia","family":"Farcas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qualcomm Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e316","DOI":"10.1016\/S2665-9913(23)00098-X","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of low back pain, 1990\u20132020, its attributable risk factors, and projections to 2050: A systematic analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"5","author":"Collaborators","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, N., Di, J., Wang, W., and Feng, H. 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