{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T01:46:19Z","timestamp":1790300779225,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781740800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Integration of LiDAR and thermal sensing has become increasingly important in robotics, infrastructure diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and autonomous perception systems. LiDAR sensors provide accurate three-dimensional geometric information but do not directly capture thermal properties of observed objects, whereas thermal cameras provide temperature distributions without explicit spatial structure. Fusion of both sensing modalities enables thermally augmented 3D scene reconstruction and spatial localization of temperature anomalies. This paper presents a practical LiDAR\u2013thermal fusion framework for three-dimensional localization of heat sources using an Ouster OS1 LiDAR sensor and a FLIR A70 thermal camera. The proposed framework includes intrinsic thermal-camera calibration, extrinsic LiDAR\u2013thermal calibration, multimodal data synchronization, projection of LiDAR points onto the thermal image plane, and assignment of temperature values to spatial points. Additionally, a dedicated thermally distinguishable calibration target is proposed to enable reliable multimodal feature extraction under low-contrast LWIR imaging conditions. The developed framework was experimentally validated using real radiometric thermal data and LiDAR point clouds acquired under laboratory conditions. Quantitative evaluation demonstrated reprojection errors below 1 pixel and a mean hottest-point localisation error of approximately 4.1 cm at a distance of 12.3 m. The results confirm that accurate spatial localisation of thermal anomalies can be achieved using a geometry-based multimodal fusion approach without relying on computationally expensive learning-based methods. The proposed framework emphasises practical deployment, deterministic calibration, and applicability in scenarios where limited training data or constrained computational resources make learning-based approaches difficult to apply. The proposed system may be applied to building energy diagnostics, industrial inspection, technical infrastructure monitoring, and robotic perception systems that require reliable spatial localisation of heat sources under real measurement conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26123876","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T10:25:34Z","timestamp":1781778334000},"page":"3876","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["3D Localization of Heat Sources Using LiDAR\u2013Thermal Data Fusion and Multisensor Calibration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3629-0578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafa\u0142","family":"Gasz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Computer Science, Opole University of Technology, Pr\u00f3szkowska 76 St., 45-758 Opole, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mateusz","family":"Pluskota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KBA AUTOMATIC, Technologiczna 2A St., 45-839 Opole, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Schwierz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KBA AUTOMATIC, Technologiczna 2A St., 45-839 Opole, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2016.2624754","article-title":"Past, present, and future of simultaneous localization and mapping: Toward the robust-perception age","volume":"32","author":"Cadena","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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