{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T16:38:57Z","timestamp":1790959137736,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]],"date-time":"2026-06-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782086400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Smart Health, College of Engineering and Computer Science, Florida Atlantic University"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nystagmus, the involuntary rhythmic oscillation of the eyes, is a critical diagnostic marker in vestibular medicine, distinguishing life-threatening central disorders such as stroke from benign peripheral conditions including Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV). Despite its clinical importance, accurate nystagmus assessment has long been constrained by expensive infrared video-oculography equipment such as videonystagmography, specialist dependency, and the episodic nature of vestibular symptoms that are often resolved before a clinical encounter. This review synthesizes approximately 50 papers published between 1952 and 2026 across four thematic domains: AI-driven nystagmus analysis, clinical medicine, smartphone and portable hardware innovations, and telemedicine and remote monitoring. On the AI front, classical machine learning models achieve up to 98.77% nystagmus recognition accuracy using ensemble methods, while deep learning frameworks spanning CNNs, U-Nets, LSTMs, and optical flow networks demonstrate clinical-grade slow-phase velocity measurement equivalent to gold standard video-oculography on standard smartphone RGB video. Large language and vision models including GPT-4V and Gemini 2.0 show early-stage promise as zero-shot triage tools but currently fall well below specialist-level diagnostic accuracy. Concurrently, portable hardware innovations ranging from 3D-printed goggle systems to ARKit-based smartphone applications are narrowing the accessibility gap, while telemedicine frameworks enable ictal recording and cloud-based specialist review outside the clinic. Across all domains, the common barriers to clinical translation are dataset scarcity for rare BPPV subtypes, sensitivity to ambient conditions, and the absence of explainable AI mechanisms. This review maps the current state of the field and identifies multimodal data fusion, prospective clinical validation, and interpretable AI as the critical next steps toward equitable, specialist independent vestibular diagnostics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26123949","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T01:03:23Z","timestamp":1782263003000},"page":"3949","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Comprehensive Review of Nystagmus and Vertigo Diagnostics: From Pathological Foundations to AI-Driven Telemedicine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Kowshik","family":"Balasubramanian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, College of Engineering and Computer Science, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ali","family":"Danesh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hearing, Tinnitus, Balance Research Laboratory, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abhijit","family":"Pandya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, College of Engineering and Computer Science, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-63437-5.00005-4","article-title":"The epidemiology of dizziness and vertigo","volume":"Volume 137","author":"Furman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hand-Book of Clinical Neurology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1111\/acem.12168","article-title":"Rising annual costs of dizziness presentations to U.S. emergency departments","volume":"20","author":"Coughlan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acad. 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