{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]],"date-time":"2026-06-28T04:45:26Z","timestamp":1782621926341,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782172800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Science and Technology Research Project of Henan Province, China","award":["262102220039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["262102220039"]}]},{"name":"the Natural Science Foundation of Henan Province, China","award":["262300421369"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["262300421369"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>School buses serve as the primary mode of transportation for children traveling to and from school, and their safety measures represent a critical safeguard for children\u2019s lives. Nevertheless, incidents in which children are left unattended on school buses\u2014due to inadequate supervision or the children\u2019s own actions\u2014occur with notable frequency and can lead to fatal outcomes. To mitigate or prevent such tragedies, this paper proposes an in-vehicle thermal imaging solution based on infrared array sensors, integrated with a dedicated algorithm to detect whether a child has been left behind in the school bus. The system collects background temperature, presence temperature, and real-time temperature data inside the bus using infrared array sensors. By comparing the real-time temperature difference against a predefined presence temperature difference threshold, the algorithm determines whether a child is present under the current thermal conditions. It then verifies whether the number of positive detections within a specified temperature range meets a preset presence count threshold, thereby reaching a final decision regarding child presence. Experiments identified optimal parameters: a temperature range of 26\u201333 \u00b0C, a double-difference threshold (\u03b5 = 1), and a presence count threshold (P = 4). Random testing demonstrated that the proposed technical solution and algorithm achieve an overall detection success rate of 92.5%. This study develops a low-cost, easily deployable, non-contact thermal imaging method capable of identifying forgotten children on school buses with satisfactory accuracy. By detecting retention before harm occurs, the approach enhances the safety of children traveling by school bus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26133982","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T01:03:23Z","timestamp":1782263003000},"page":"3982","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Child Presence Detection Algorithm in School Buses Based on Infrared Array"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5132-8175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongjun","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Huanghuai University, Zhumadian 463000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gaosong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Huanghuai University, Zhumadian 463000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuepeng","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Huanghuai University, Zhumadian 463000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuai","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Huanghuai University, Zhumadian 463000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sifuentes, E., Gonzalez-Landaeta, R., Cota-Ruiz, J., and Reverter, F. 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