{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T14:01:05Z","timestamp":1785420065064,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782259200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002367","name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["XDB0580000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDB0580000"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002367","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["XDB0580000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDB0580000"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/034t30j35","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002855","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022YFA1404602"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFA1404602"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002855","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62550008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62550008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["92580205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["92580205"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["U23B2045"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U23B2045"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62305362"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62305362"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["62550008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62550008"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["92580205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["92580205"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["U23B2045"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U23B2045"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["62305362"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62305362"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Fund of SITP Innovation Foundation","award":["CX-522"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX-522"]}]},{"name":"Fund of SITP Innovation Foundation","award":["CX-577"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX-577"]}]},{"name":"Fund of SITP Innovation Foundation","award":["CX-636"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX-636"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wavefront sensing (WFS) is fundamental to adaptive optics, astronomical observation, biological microscopy, and free-space optical communications. However, conventional approaches\u2014including Shack\u2013Hartmann sensors, shearing interferometers, and transport of intensity equation-based methods\u2014are inherently limited by trade-offs among spatial sampling density, angular dynamic range, and device compactness and have rarely been extended to the mid-infrared range. Here, we propose an on-chip mid-infrared wavefront sensing scheme operating based on vectorial photocurrent manipulation and analyze the properties of the proposed device through finite-element simulations. The proposed device comprises a hexagonal array of antenna-integrated graphene pixels, each equipped with three contacts and a microlens. Based on the antenna-induced vectorial photocurrent manipulation, angle-dependent absorption is translated into photocurrent signals, potentially enabling unambiguous recovery of both the elevation and azimuth angles of the incident light over an effective angular dynamic range of \u00b128\u00b0. The hexagonal layout provides a high spatial sampling density of 11,547 mm\u22122. Southwell algorithm-based wavefront reconstruction and numerical simulations yield faithful recovery of parabolic, conical, and quadrangular pyramidal wavefronts. In addition, simulation results indicate that this approach can enable high-fidelity reconstruction of both the phase and intensity distributions of an object based on angular-spectrum diffraction theory. Overall, this work theoretically demonstrates a new route toward high-density wavefront measurement and complex light field imaging in the mid-infrared range without a conventional imaging lens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26134022","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T03:20:21Z","timestamp":1782357621000},"page":"4022","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["On-Chip Mid-Infrared Wavefront Sensing Based on Vectorial Photocurrent Manipulation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Tao","family":"Ye","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaofei","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Ning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xueling","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xianda","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ziao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9859-8394","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoshuang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0190-7715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jing","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1364\/OPTICA.544943","article-title":"Computational Optical Imaging: On the Convergence of Physical and Digital Layers","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Optica"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-024-01287-w","article-title":"An On-Chip Full-Stokes Polarimeter Based on Optoelectronic Polarization Eigenvectors","volume":"7","author":"Deng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. 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