{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T05:15:16Z","timestamp":1783487716408,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,4]],"date-time":"2026-07-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783123200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Professional UAV thermal imaging systems are widely used for inspection, environmental monitoring, search and rescue, agriculture, and technical diagnostics. However, their cost limits their use in education, preliminary field screening, rapid prototyping, and low-resource applications. This study evaluates a minimum-cost indirect UAV thermal sensing workflow based on a DJI Mini 4K consumer drone, a lightweight Servo King9000 smartphone, and a UTi260M smartphone-connected infrared thermal camera. In the proposed configuration, the smartphone displayed and recorded the thermal stream, while the onboard RGB camera of the UAV recorded the smartphone-displayed infrared video during flight. The aim was not to develop a radiometric UAV thermal imaging platform, but to determine whether such a low-cost configuration can provide qualitative presence\/absence indication of clear thermal hotspots and to identify its operational limits. The system was experimentally assessed under no-payload and payload conditions, daylight and nighttime illumination, and several low-altitude operating heights. Additional motor-region thermal observations were performed using a UTi260T handheld thermal camera under loaded and unloaded operating conditions. The complete UAV\u2013payload configuration had a measured mass of approximately 340 g, corresponding to an effective added payload of 91 g and a payload-to-UAV mass ratio of 36.5%. Payload operation reduced near-ground flight endurance from approximately 25 min to 14 min 40 s. The maximum observed motor-region temperature increased from 24.9 \u00b0C under unloaded operation to 42.0 \u00b0C under loaded operation, while motor thermal asymmetry increased from 4.8 \u00b0C to 7.6 \u00b0C. Nighttime and low-glare operation improved the readability of the smartphone-displayed thermal stream, with the most practical usability observed at approximately 10\u201320 m. The results show that the proposed workflow is feasible only for short-range qualitative thermal screening and clear hotspot presence\/absence indication. The UAV-recorded video should not be interpreted as direct thermal data, but as an RGB recording of a smartphone display showing thermal information. Therefore, the workflow is not suitable for quantitative temperature measurement, radiometric thermal mapping, or accurate thermal shape delineation. The main operational limits are payload mass, suspended-load oscillation, display readability, reduced endurance, motor-region thermal loading, sensitivity to payload alignment, and the absence of raw radiometric data. Direct UTi260M smartphone-recorded thermal frames were additionally used for pixel-size-assisted qualitative verification of practical reference thermal targets, including a human-sized target and a vehicle-sized target, at selected low-altitude operating heights.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26134259","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T12:01:37Z","timestamp":1783339297000},"page":"4259","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Feasibility and Operational Limits of a Minimum-Cost Indirect UAV Thermal Sensing Workflow Based on Smartphone-Displayed Infrared Video"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2317-8867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yordan","family":"Stoyanov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Transport and Aircraft Equipment and Technologies, Technical University of Sofia, Branch Plovdiv, 25 Tsanko Dyustabanov Street, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"},{"name":"Center of Competence \u201cSmart Mechatronics, Eco- and Energy Saving Systems and Technologies\u201d, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4423-9935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Atanasi","family":"Tashev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Transport and Aircraft Equipment and Technologies, Technical University of Sofia, Branch Plovdiv, 25 Tsanko Dyustabanov Street, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"},{"name":"Center of Competence \u201cSmart Mechatronics, Eco- and Energy Saving Systems and Technologies\u201d, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-9866-6525","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silviya","family":"Salapateva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Transport and Aircraft Equipment and Technologies, Technical University of Sofia, Branch Plovdiv, 25 Tsanko Dyustabanov Street, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"},{"name":"Center of Competence \u201cSmart Mechatronics, Eco- and Energy Saving Systems and Technologies\u201d, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0367-3245","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Penko","family":"Mitev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Competence \u201cSmart Mechatronics, Eco- and Energy Saving Systems and Technologies\u201d, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"},{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Instrument Engineering, Technical University of Sofia, Branch Plovdiv, 25 Tsanko Dyustabanov Street, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitar","family":"Yankov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Competence \u201cSmart Mechatronics, Eco- and Energy Saving Systems and Technologies\u201d, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"},{"name":"Department of Electronics, Technical University of Sofia, Branch Plovdiv, 25 Tsanko Dyustabanov Street, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Galya","family":"Hristova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Students Campus, Trakia University, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Galin","family":"Tihanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Students Campus, Trakia University, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bohnett, E., Lamichanne, B.R., Chaudhary, S., Pokhrel, K., Dorman, G., Flores, A., Lewison, R., Qiu, F., Stow, D., and An, L. 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