{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T09:42:37Z","timestamp":1785404557415,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783382400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005195","name":"China University of Mining and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023KCS761"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023KCS761"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005195","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005195","name":"China University of Mining and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZV194423-Y"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZV194423-Y"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005195","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005195","name":"China University of Mining and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["7V180022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["7V180022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005195","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2023KCS761"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023KCS761"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01xt2dr21","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["ZV194423-Y"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZV194423-Y"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01xt2dr21","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["7V180022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["7V180022"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01xt2dr21","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In underground mining operations, intelligent electronic monitoring and control systems have gradually become essential tools for practitioners to obtain operational information. Because underground mines are characterized by low-light environments that differ substantially from above-ground natural lighting, screen-related factors can strongly affect visual search tasks. It is therefore important to examine how interface layout influences visual search efficiency under low-illuminance mining conditions. This study utilized eye-tracking sensing technology to evaluate user performance within a simulated underground electronic monitoring and control system. Interface layout and ambient illuminance were set as experimental variables to investigate their effects on users\u2019 search efficiency, quantitative eye-movement metrics, and usability satisfaction. The results showed that interface layout and ambient illuminance had significant main effects on task completion time, fixation count, saccade count, and subjective usability score. Among the tested layouts, the Three-Column Layout (THCL) showed the most favorable performance in task completion time, fixation count, and subjective usability score, while visual search efficiency was generally higher under the 50-lx condition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26134310","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T16:16:18Z","timestamp":1783527378000},"page":"4310","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Characterizing Human Visual Performance in Dim Industrial Environments: An Eye-Tracking Sensor-Based Study on Mine Monitoring Interface Layouts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6511-395X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junqing","family":"Hao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture and Design, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6698-3818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture and Design, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3145-4980","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei","family":"Zong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture and Design, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"78","article-title":"Coal mine safety production situation and management strategy","volume":"14","author":"Niu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Manag. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solarz, J., Gawlik-Kobyli\u0144ska, M., Ostant, W., and Maciejewski, P. (2022). Trends in energy security education with a focus on renewable and nonrenewable sources. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15041351"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singo, J., Isunju, J.B., Moyo, D., Bose-O\u2019reilly, S., Steckling-Muschack, N., and Mamuse, A. (2022). Accidents, injuries, and safety among artisanal and small-scale gold miners in Zimbabwe. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19148663"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2022.102185","article-title":"Urgency-Based color coding to support visual search in displays for supervisory control of multiple unmanned aircraft systems","volume":"74","author":"Friedrich","year":"2022","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Friedrich, M., and Lieb, J. (2019). A novel human machine interface to support supervision and guidance of multiple highly automated unmanned aircraft. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE\/AIAA 38th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC), San Diego, CA, USA, 8\u201312 September 2019, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/DASC43569.2019.9081645"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nobre, K., and Sabine, K. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Attention, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780199675111.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.1037\/a0030726","article-title":"Memory for found targets interferes with subsequent performance in multiple-target visual search","volume":"39","author":"Cain","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2020.101943","article-title":"Influence of ambient-tablet PC luminance ratio on legibility and visual fatigue during long-term reading in low lighting environment","volume":"62","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2022.103387","article-title":"Effects of design features of train electronic guidance interface on visual search, behavior, and usability","volume":"93","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Ind. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11102","DOI":"10.3390\/su151411102","article-title":"Integration with Visual Perception\u2014Research on the Usability of a Data Visualization Interface Layout in Zero-Carbon Parks Based on Eye-Tracking Technology","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, X., and Pan, P. (2025). The Impact of Information Layout and Auxiliary Instruction Display Mode on the Usability of Virtual Fitting Interaction Interfaces. Information, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/info16100862"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, C., Yuan, F., Huang, T., Zhang, Y., and Kaner, J. (2022). The impact of interface design element features on task performance in older adults: Evidence from eye-tracking and EEG signals. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19159251"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u021aichindelean, M., \u021aichindelean, M.T., Cetin\u0103, I., and Orzan, G. (2021). A comparative eye tracking study of usability\u2014Towards sustainable web design. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su131810415"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3256","DOI":"10.3390\/heritage6030172","article-title":"Usability evaluation with eye tracking: The case of a mobile augmented reality application with historical images for urban cultural heritage","volume":"6","author":"Szekely","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heritage"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, H., and Jang, W. (2024). User experience study of the patient monitoring systems based on usability testing and eye tracking. Healthcare, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare12242573"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aksu, \u015e.H., \u00c7ak\u0131t, E., and Da\u011fdeviren, M. (2024). Mental workload assessment using machine learning techniques based on eeg and eye tracking data. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202402.0452.v1"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2021.103143","article-title":"Visual recognition efficiency of handheld infrared thermometer interface information under low ambient illuminance","volume":"83","author":"Yao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Ind. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Shi, H., Chen, Q.-W., Ru, T., and Zhou, G. (2021). Investigation of the optimum display luminance of an LCD screen under different ambient illuminances in the evening. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11094108"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, H.-P., Wei, M., Li, H.-C., and Ou, L.-C. (2021). Visual comfort of tablet devices under a wide range of ambient light levels. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11188679"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, W., Wang, Y., Hu, B., and Wang, Q. (2024). Exploration of eye fatigue detection features and algorithm based on eye-tracking signal. Electronics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics13101798"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sengsoon, P., and Intaruk, R. (2025). Immediate effects of light mode and dark mode features on visual fatigue in tablet users. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph22040609"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2015.09.004","article-title":"Adaptive luminance difference between text and background for comfortable reading on a smartphone","volume":"51","author":"Na","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Ind. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, P., Xu, G., Han, C., Zheng, X., Zhang, K., Du, C., Wei, F., and Zhang, S. (2022). Effects of paradigm color and screen brightness on visual fatigue in light environment of night based on eye tracker and EEG acquisition equipment. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22114082"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"104","article-title":"Response interpolation and scale sensitivity: Evidence against 5-point scales","volume":"5","author":"Finstad","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Usability Stud."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2015). Code for Design of Coal Mine Industry (Standard No. GB 50215-2015)."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2023). Safety Technical Requirements for Coal Mine Lamps (Standard No. GB 7957-2023)."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(88)80068-3","article-title":"Effects of breadth, depth and number of responses on computer menu search performance","volume":"28","author":"Parkinson","year":"1988","journal-title":"Int. J. Man-Mach. Stud."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2025.103483","article-title":"Understanding visual search in graphical user interfaces","volume":"199","author":"Putkonen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1145\/502907.502908","article-title":"Visual search and mouse-pointing in labeled versus unlabeled two-dimensional visual hierarchies","volume":"8","author":"Hornof","year":"2001","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact. (TOCHI)"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hornof, A.J., and Tim, H. (2003). Cognitive strategies and eye movements for searching hierarchical computer displays. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Association for Computing Machinery.","DOI":"10.1145\/642611.642656"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327051hci1903_1","article-title":"Cognitive strategies for the visual search of hierarchical computer displays","volume":"19","author":"Hornof","year":"2004","journal-title":"Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brumby, D.P., and Zhuang, S. (2015). Visual grouping in menu interfaces. Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 18\u201323 April 2015, Association for Computing Machinery.","DOI":"10.1145\/2702123.2702177"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ehret, B.D. (2002). Learning where to look: Location learning in graphical user interfaces. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Association for Computing Machinery.","DOI":"10.1145\/503411.503414"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scarr, J., Cockburn, A., Gutwin, C., and Malacria, S. (2013). Testing the robustness and performance of spatially consistent interfaces. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Association for Computing Machinery.","DOI":"10.1145\/2470654.2466430"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, N., Zhang, J., Jiang, S., and Ge, W. (2024). The effects of layout order on interface complexity: An eye-tracking study for dashboard design. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24185966"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929021000009045","article-title":"Expandable indexes vs. sequential menus for searching hierarchies on the World Wide Web","volume":"21","author":"Zaphiris","year":"2002","journal-title":"Behav. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.2174\/1875934300902010064","article-title":"The effect of menu type and task complexity on information retrieval performance","volume":"2","author":"Madrid","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ergon. Open J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-8141(98)00068-7","article-title":"Computer interface evaluation using eye movements: Methods and constructs","volume":"24","author":"Goldberg","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Ind. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghaoui, C. (2006). Eye tracking in HCI and usability research. Encyclopedia of Human Computer Interaction, Idea Group Reference.","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-59140-562-7"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2007.05.002","article-title":"Coarse-to-fine eye movement strategy in visual search","volume":"47","author":"Over","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Vasilyev, A. (2020). Control of fixation duration during visual search task execution. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-020-01485-0","article-title":"Human visual search follows a suboptimal Bayesian strategy revealed by a spatiotemporal computational model and experiment","volume":"4","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2013.819936","article-title":"The influence of the search complexity and the familiarity with the website on the subjective appraisal of aesthetics, mental effort and usability","volume":"33","author":"Chevalier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Behav. Inf. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/13\/4310\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T16:17:34Z","timestamp":1783527454000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/13\/4310"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s26134310"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26134310","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]}}}