{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T04:04:39Z","timestamp":1784261079905,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784160000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Xi\u2019an Science and Technology Planning Project","award":["2020KJRC0083"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020KJRC0083"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013101","name":"Scientific Research Plan Projects of Shaanxi Education Department","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["18JK0341"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18JK0341"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013101","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Visible light communication (VLC) is widely regarded as a key enabler for future vehicular networks, thanks to its extremely large unlicensed bandwidth and non-interference with existing radio frequency (RF) communication networks. With the goal of maximizing the benefits of both RF and VLC technologies, aggregated VLC\u2013RF vehicular networks, in which any vehicle can be served by both RF and VLC access points (APs) concurrently, have recently become a more robust and promising approach for enhancing vehicle-to-everything (V2X) applications and improving the quality-of-service (QoS) of vehicular networks. This paper focuses on the joint spectrum reuse and power allocation problem in aggregated VLC\u2013RF vehicular networks with delayed channel state information (CSI) feedback, where vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) links opportunistically reuse the RF spectrum allocated to vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) links. Specifically, we focus on maximizing the total V2I achievable rate to support high-rate content delivery, and guaranteeing the required reliability of V2V links tasked with exchanging safety-critical information. Furthermore, the sum V2I achievable rate maximization problem is decomposed into four subproblems, which are iteratively solved through an efficient block coordinate descent (BCD)-based alternating optimization algorithm. Moreover, simulation results validate the convergence and efficiency of the proposed algorithm while highlighting the impact of critical parameters on system performance, providing valuable insights for resource allocation in aggregated VLC\u2013RF vehicular networks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26144518","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T03:12:38Z","timestamp":1784257958000},"page":"4518","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["QoS-Driven Resource Allocation and Performance Optimization for Aggregated VLC\u2013RF Vehicular Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Huanhuan","family":"Qin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Automation and Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an University of Technology, Xi\u2019an 710048, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xizheng","family":"Ke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Automation and Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an University of Technology, Xi\u2019an 710048, China"},{"name":"Shaanxi Civil-Military Integration Key Laboratory of Intelligence Collaborative Networks, Xi\u2019an 710126, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"100164","article-title":"A tutorial survey on vehicular communication state of the art, and future research directions","volume":"18","author":"Singh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Veh. Commun."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2020.3029723","article-title":"Challenges and solutions for cellular based V2X communications","volume":"23","author":"Gyawali","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2019.2894816","article-title":"Named data networking in vehicular Ad Hoc networks: State-of-the-art and challenges","volume":"22","author":"Khelifi","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13573","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2023.3297527","article-title":"A comprehensive survey on authentication and attack detection schemes that threaten it in vehicular Ad-Hoc networks","volume":"24","author":"Dong","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2023.3283993","article-title":"Interference-aware resource allocation algorithm for D2D-enabled cellular networks using matching theory","volume":"21","author":"Shamaei","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Serv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65449","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2877199","article-title":"Joint resource allocation with weighted Max-Min fairness for NOMA-enabled V2X communications","volume":"6","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7508","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2018.2823313","article-title":"Wireless resource management in LTE-U driven heterogeneous V2X communication networks","volume":"67","author":"Wei","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.1900287","article-title":"A vision of 6G wireless systems: Applications, trends, technologies, and open research problems","volume":"34","author":"Saad","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2022.108465","article-title":"Joint AP grouping and user clustering for interference management in cell-free VLC network","volume":"156","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1656","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2024.3471950","article-title":"A survey on indoor visible light positioning systems: Fundamentals, applications, and challenges","volume":"27","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1963","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2806558","article-title":"A survey of positioning systems using visible LED lights","volume":"20","author":"Zhuang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2947","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2019.2906225","article-title":"On optimizing VLC networks for downlink multi-user transmission: A survey","volume":"21","author":"Obeed","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.001.2100748","article-title":"Access frameworks and application scenarios for Hybrid VLC and RF systems: State of the art, challenges, and trends","volume":"60","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5375","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2017.2740211","article-title":"Access point selection for Hybrid Li-Fi and Wi-Fi networks","volume":"65","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7265","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2020.3010294","article-title":"Aggregated VLC-RF systems: Achievable rates, optimal power allocation, and energy efficiency","volume":"19","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6624","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2023.3244871","article-title":"Energy-efficient resource allocation for aggregated RF\/VLC systems","volume":"22","author":"Aboagye","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1364\/JOCN.7.000960","article-title":"Design and analysis of a Visible-Light-Communication enhanced WiFi system","volume":"7","author":"Shao","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Opt. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2016.2544618","article-title":"Energy efficient resource allocation for mixed RF\/VLC heterogeneous wireless networks","volume":"34","author":"Kashef","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2020.2969624","article-title":"Resource management for Hybrid RF\/VLC V2I wireless communication system","volume":"24","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2018.2815478","article-title":"Energy efficient subchannel and power allocation for software-defined heterogeneous VLC and RF networks","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3429","DOI":"10.1109\/TMM.2021.3098422","article-title":"Anti-forensics for face swapping videos via adversarial training","volume":"24","author":"Ding","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Multimed."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5670","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2021.3139357","article-title":"A novel real-time deterministic scheduling mechanism in industrial cyber-physical systems for energy internet","volume":"18","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8601","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2020.2997853","article-title":"Resource allocation for cellular V2X networks Mode-3 with underlay approach in LTE-V standard","volume":"69","author":"Aslani","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2756","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2015.2509978","article-title":"Cluster-based radio resource management for D2D-supported safety-critical V2X communications","volume":"15","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2022.3213176","article-title":"Radio resource management for C-V2X using graph matching and actor\u2013critic learning","volume":"11","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3547","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2020.3001682","article-title":"Efficient power-splitting and resource allocation for cellular V2X communications","volume":"22","author":"Jameel","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3850","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2018.2816942","article-title":"A latency and reliability guaranteed resource allocation scheme for LTE V2V communication systems","volume":"17","author":"Mei","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3387","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2800036","article-title":"QoE-based resource allocation forheterogeneous multi-radio communication insoftware-defined vehicle networks","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3186","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2017.2699194","article-title":"Resource allocation for D2D-enabled vehicular communications","volume":"65","author":"Liang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2017.2702747","article-title":"Spectrum and power allocation for vehicular communications with delayed CSI feedback","volume":"6","author":"Liang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12578","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2024.3393621","article-title":"IRS-assisted aggregated VLC-RF system: Resource allocation for energy efficiency maximization","volume":"23","author":"An","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3561","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2017.2778345","article-title":"Learning-aided network association for Hybrid indoor LiFi-WiFi systems","volume":"67","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5565","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2933867","article-title":"Learning-based energy-efficient resource management by heterogeneous RF\/VLC for ultra-reliable low-latency industrial IoT networks","volume":"16","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5969","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2021.3071332","article-title":"Qos-driven spectrum sharing for reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) aided vehicular networks","volume":"20","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2023.3242723","article-title":"Radio resource management for C-V2X: From a Hybrid centralized-distributed scheme to a distributed scheme","volume":"41","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4956","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.563551","article-title":"Capacity bound analysis for visible light communications with a Gaussian mixture noise","volume":"64","author":"Qin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62657","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2916921","article-title":"Joint power allocation and user scheduling for device-to-device-enabled heterogeneous networks with Non-Orthogonal multiple access","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6732","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2022.3158955","article-title":"Socially aware V2X networks with RIS: Joint resource optimization","volume":"71","author":"Gu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2932","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2019.2906196","article-title":"Load balancing user association in millimeter wave MIMO networks","volume":"18","author":"Alizadeh","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1287\/opre.26.4.681","article-title":"A general inner approximation algorithm for nonconvex mathematical programs","volume":"26","author":"Marks","year":"1978","journal-title":"Oper. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyd, S.P., and Vandenberghe, L. (2004). Convex Optimization, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511804441"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2016.2601299","article-title":"Majorization-minimization algorithms in signal processing, communications, and machine learning","volume":"65","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1392","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2008.918099","article-title":"Optimal and distributed protocols for cross-layer design of physical and transport layers in manets","volume":"16","author":"Papandriopoulos","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE\/ACM Trans. Netw."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2025.3543538","article-title":"NOMA-based multi-cell VLC systems with optical intelligent reflecting surface: Resource allocation for energy efficiency maximization","volume":"43","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1364\/JOCN.10.000553","article-title":"Joint optimization of power allocation and load balancing for hybrid VLC\/RF networks","volume":"10","author":"Obeed","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Opt. Commun. Netw."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/14\/4518\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T03:27:29Z","timestamp":1784258849000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/14\/4518"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s26144518"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26144518","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]]}}}