{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:08:48Z","timestamp":1785409728480,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784246400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Spanish Government","award":["TED2021-129485B-C41"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-129485B-C41"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Government","award":["TED2021-129485B-C44"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-129485B-C44"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Government","award":["PID2024-157191OB-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2024-157191OB-C21"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FPU23\/02872"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FPU23\/02872"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["FPU23\/02872"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FPU23\/02872"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05r0vyz12","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>At SAE Level 2 automation, the human driver retains full supervisory responsibility, making unobtrusive monitoring relevant for maintaining supervision under real-world driving conditions. Driver monitoring systems capable of operating robustly under such conditions are therefore essential, but wearable-based personalized approaches remain underexplored, particularly when the target labels are derived from experimental scenarios. This study presents a real-world SAE Level 2 on-road acquisition campaign and evaluates a target-driver intra-subject classification approach using non-intrusive wrist-derived signals. Physiological and motion data recorded with the Empatica E4 wristband, including blood volume pulse, electrodermal activity, heart rate, skin temperature, and triaxial wrist acceleration, were converted into image representations and processed with a frozen ResNet-50 feature extractor, principal component analysis, and a supervised classifier. The labels were scenario-derived operational driver-state classes defined from experimental phases and scenario groups. Personalization was assessed via a Leave-One-Experience-Out protocol on the target driver. Classification accuracy was 50% under external-user-only training, 54% under mixed target\/external-user training, and 60% under target-driver-only training, with the target-driver-only configuration yielding the highest mean performance in the evaluated setting. For the low-demand baseline class, the one-vs.-rest classifier achieved 88.4% accuracy and an F1-score of 70%. These results provide initial evidence of the feasibility of personalized wrist-worn classification of scenario-derived operational driver-state classes under the real-world automated driving conditions evaluated in this study.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26144529","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T03:12:38Z","timestamp":1784257958000},"page":"4529","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Personalized Classification of Scenario-Derived Operational Driver-State Classes from Non-Intrusive Wearable Signals in Real-World SAE Level 2 Automated Driving"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0326-8039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raul","family":"Fernandez-Matellan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Intelligent Systems Lab, Electrical Engineering Department, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Legan\u00e9s, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0999-4115","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Puertas-Ramirez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"aDeNu Research Group, Artificial Intelligence Department, Universidad Nacional de Educaci\u00f3n a Distancia, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3764-5083","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David Martin","family":"Gomez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Intelligent Systems Lab, Electrical Engineering Department, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Legan\u00e9s, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4949-9220","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jesus G.","family":"Boticario","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"aDeNu Research Group, Artificial Intelligence Department, Universidad Nacional de Educaci\u00f3n a Distancia, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2024.123153","article-title":"Determining the onset of driver\u2019s preparatory action for take-over in automated driving using multimodal data","volume":"246","author":"Teshima","year":"2024","journal-title":"Expert Syst. 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