{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:35:24Z","timestamp":1785418524908,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785196800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U23A20639"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U23A20639"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U2341210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2341210"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52375554"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52375554"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["U23A20639"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U23A20639"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["U2341210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2341210"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["52375554"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52375554"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Applied Fundamental Research Program of Shanxi Province","award":["202303021223008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202303021223008"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022TQ0230"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022TQ0230"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022M712324"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022M712324"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2022TQ0230"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022TQ0230"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0426zh255","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2022M712324"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022M712324"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0426zh255","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Soft piezoelectric electronic skins are expected to work reliably under repeated joint bending, where both stretchability and stress transfer efficiency are important. In this work, a BaTiO3\/PDMS piezoelectric electronic skin, denoted as BPPE-skin, was prepared by a blade-coating method. Rather than only increasing the amount of piezoelectric filler, this study focuses on how the PDMS matrix composition affects the mechanical deformation and electrical response of the composite. The PDMS base-to-curing-agent ratio was adjusted from 5:1 to 30:1, and the BaTiO3 loading was varied from 10 to 90 wt%. Tensile tests show that increasing the base-to-curing-agent ratio reduces the elastic modulus and improves stretchability, while excessive softening weakens effective stress transfer. As a result, the voltage output reaches its highest value at a 10:1 ratio. Increasing the BaTiO3 content further enhances the output, mainly because more active piezoelectric particles participate in electromechanical conversion. The optimized film, containing 90 wt% BaTiO3 with a 10:1 PDMS ratio, maintains good flexibility and can be attached conformally to different body joints. Tests on the knee, elbow, wrist, and fingers produce distinct voltage patterns during bending motions, indicating the potential of BPPE-skin for wearable, self-powered human motion monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26154781","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T07:55:41Z","timestamp":1785225341000},"page":"4781","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Ultra-Stretchable and Skin-Conformal Piezoelectric Electronic Skin for Self-Powered Human Motion Monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Jingchao","family":"Yuan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology on Electronic Test and Measurement Laboratory, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junbin","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology on Electronic Test and Measurement Laboratory, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6353-4697","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jian","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology on Electronic Test and Measurement Laboratory, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiliang","family":"Mu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology on Electronic Test and Measurement Laboratory, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaojuan","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology on Electronic Test and Measurement Laboratory, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiujian","family":"Chou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology on Electronic Test and Measurement Laboratory, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1678","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201504755","article-title":"Stretchable, Skin-Mountable, and Wearable Strain Sensors and Their Potential Applications: A Review","volume":"26","author":"Amjadi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000233","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202000233","article-title":"Soft Electronics for the Skin: From Health Monitors to Human\u2013Machine Interfaces","volume":"5","author":"Rao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9614","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.7b04898","article-title":"Lab-on-Skin: A Review of Flexible and Stretchable Electronics for Wearable Health Monitoring","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4338","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201504244","article-title":"Flexible and Stretchable Physical Sensor Integrated Platforms for Wearable Human-Activity Monitoring and Personal Healthcare","volume":"28","author":"Trung","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1927","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1317233111","article-title":"Conformal Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting and Storage from Motions of the Heart, Lung, and Diaphragm","volume":"111","author":"Dagdeviren","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1702308","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201702308","article-title":"Self-Powered Real-Time Arterial Pulse Monitoring Using Ultrathin Epidermal Piezoelectric Sensors","volume":"29","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5997","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201302240","article-title":"25th Anniversary Article: The Evolution of Electronic Skin: A Brief History, Design Considerations, and Recent Progress","volume":"25","author":"Hammock","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201304248","article-title":"Silk-Molded Flexible, Ultrasensitive, and Highly Stable Electronic Skin for Monitoring Human Physiological Signals","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4671","article-title":"Pursuing Prosthetic Electronic Skin","volume":"15","author":"Chortos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1039\/C4FD00159A","article-title":"Triboelectric Nanogenerators as New Energy Technology and Self-Powered Sensors\u2014Principles, Problems and Perspectives","volume":"176","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Faraday Discuss."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2021.106319","article-title":"Performance-Enhanced Flexible Piezoelectric Nanogenerator via Layer-by-Layer Assembly for Self-Powered Vagal Neuromodulation","volume":"89","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1902549","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201902549","article-title":"Fiber\/Fabric-Based Piezoelectric and Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Flexible\/Stretchable and Wearable Electronics and Artificial Intelligence","volume":"32","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3380","DOI":"10.1039\/D1CS00858G","article-title":"Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Personalized Healthcare","volume":"51","author":"Deng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2023.08.057","article-title":"Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Self-Powered Wearable and Implantable Bioelectronic Devices","volume":"171","author":"Das","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16436","DOI":"10.1039\/D4SC05166A","article-title":"Flexible Piezoelectric Materials and Strain Sensors for Wearable Electronics and Artificial Intelligence Applications","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34335","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6b11108","article-title":"Piezoelectric and Triboelectric Dual Effects in Mechanical-Energy Harvesting Using BaTiO3\/Polydimethylsiloxane Composite Film","volume":"8","author":"Suo","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42200","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.7b13767","article-title":"A Stretchable and Transparent Nanocomposite Nanogenerator for Self-Powered Physiological Monitoring","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1039\/C8TC04741C","article-title":"The Alignment of BCZT Particles in PDMS Boosts the Sensitivity and Cycling Reliability of a Flexible Piezoelectric Touch Sensor","volume":"7","author":"Gao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1557\/mrs.2012.32","article-title":"Mechanics of Stretchable Electronics and Soft Machines","volume":"37","author":"Suo","year":"2012","journal-title":"MRS Bull."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6839","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201301921","article-title":"Materials and Optimized Designs for Human\u2013Machine Interfaces via Epidermal Electronics","volume":"25","author":"Jeong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035017","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/24\/3\/035017","article-title":"Mechanical Characterization of Bulk Sylgard 184 for Microfluidics and Microengineering","volume":"24","author":"Johnston","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19090","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-98694-2","article-title":"Mechanical Properties of Bulk Sylgard 184 and Its Extension with Silicone Oil","volume":"11","author":"Pata","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2018.10.053","article-title":"Strategies to Achieve High Performance Piezoelectric Nanogenerators","volume":"55","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouhamed, A., J\u00f6hrmann, N., Naifar, S., B\u00f6hm, B., Hellwig, O., Wunderle, B., and Kanoun, O. (2022). Collaborative Filler Network for Enhancing the Performance of BaTiO3\/PDMS Flexible Piezoelectric Polymer Composite Nanogenerators. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22114181"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38105","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.2c04196","article-title":"Polydimethylsiloxane\/BaTiO3 Nanogenerators with a Surface-Assembled Mosaic Structure for Enhanced Piezoelectric Sensing","volume":"14","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045005","DOI":"10.1088\/2058-8585\/ad078e","article-title":"3D-Printed Wearable BaTiO3\/PDMS Piezoelectric Nanogenerator for Self-Powered Body Movement Sensing","volume":"8","author":"Shi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Flex. Print. Electron."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11740","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.4c00587","article-title":"3D Printing of Flexible BaTiO3\/Polydimethylsiloxane Piezocomposite with Aligned Particles for Enhanced Energy Harvesting","volume":"16","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13911","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.3c00321","article-title":"Piezoelectric Nanogenerators Based on BaTiO3\/PDMS Composites for High-Frequency Applications","volume":"8","author":"Meisak","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, L., Deng, W., Yang, T., Tian, G., Jin, L., Zhang, H., Lan, B., Wang, S., Ao, Y., and Wu, B. (2023). Flexible Lead-Free Piezoelectric Ba0.94Sr0.06Sn0.09Ti0.91O3\/PDMS Composite for Self-Powered Human Motion Monitoring. J. Funct. Biomater., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb14010037"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2020.127686","article-title":"Skin-Conformal BaTiO3\/Ecoflex-Based Piezoelectric Nanogenerator for Self-Powered Human Motion Monitoring","volume":"269","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2024.110581","article-title":"Capacitive BaTiO3-PDMS Hand-Gesture Sensor: Insights into Sensing Mechanisms and Signal Classification with Machine Learning","volume":"251","author":"Fernandez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat2834","article-title":"Highly Sensitive Flexible Pressure Sensors with Microstructured Rubber Dielectric Layers","volume":"9","author":"Mannsfeld","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6439\/ab5ec0","article-title":"Localized Modulus-Controlled PDMS Substrate for 2D and 3D Stretchable Electronics","volume":"30","author":"Miao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2190","DOI":"10.1021\/acsapm.0c00193","article-title":"Unveiling Viscoelastic Response of Capacitive-Type Pressure Sensor by Controlling Cross-Linking Density and Surface Structure of Elastomer","volume":"2","author":"Hwang","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Polym. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6b12415","article-title":"Highly Stretchable, Hysteresis-Free Ionic Liquid-Based Strain Sensor for Precise Human Motion Monitoring","volume":"9","author":"Choi","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5929","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5b00599","article-title":"Extremely Elastic Wearable Carbon Nanotube Fiber Strain Sensor for Monitoring of Human Motion","volume":"9","author":"Ryu","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6955","DOI":"10.1021\/ja0758436","article-title":"Crystal Structure and the Paraelectric-to-Ferroelectric Phase Transition of Nanoscale BaTiO3","volume":"130","author":"Smith","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3902","DOI":"10.1111\/jace.14455","article-title":"Structure\u2013Property Relationships in Aligned Electrospun Barium Titanate Nanofibers","volume":"99","author":"Bauer","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024121","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.85.024121","article-title":"Structure and Properties of Fe-Modified Na0.5Bi0.5TiO3 at Ambient and Elevated Temperature","volume":"85","author":"Aksel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9793458","DOI":"10.34133\/2021\/9793458","article-title":"A Fully Self-Healing Piezoelectric Nanogenerator for Self-Powered Pressure Sensing Electronic Skin","volume":"2021","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8710686","DOI":"10.34133\/2020\/8710686","article-title":"Nanogenerator-Based Self-Powered Sensors for Wearable and Implantable Electronics","volume":"2020","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Research"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/15\/4781\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T08:01:21Z","timestamp":1785225681000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/15\/4781"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s26154781"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26154781","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]}}}