{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T13:59:15Z","timestamp":1785765555094,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785715200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"General Royalties System of the Department of Atl\u00e1ntico-Colombia","award":["BPIN 2020000100432"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BPIN 2020000100432"]}]},{"award":["BPIN 2020000100432"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BPIN 2020000100432"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05x7bg352","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This work presents the use of an unmodified fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) electrode as an electrochemical sensor for the stable and highly reproducible detection of cannabidiol (CBD) in an oral pharmaceutical formulation (CBD-OS). This was achieved using an electrochemical methodology with 0.1 M LiClO4 in acetonitrile as the electrolyte medium. The oxidation process of CBD on the FTO was extensively studied using cyclic voltammetry to analyze the influence of forced convection during the experiment. Quantification was performed by differential pulse voltammetry with standard addition to the dissolved CBD oral oil (CBD-OS), which allowed for the determination of a detection limit of 4.8 \u00b5M and a correlation coefficient R2 = 0.9989. Statistical tests indicated no significant differences between the proposed electrochemical methodology and HPLC. The FTO electrode exhibited high reproducibility, withstanding more than 20 consecutive additions to the same electrode without loss of response, thanks to its intrinsic stability and the strategic use of forced convection. The use of an unmodified electrode enabled the development of a simple, reproducible, robust, and cost-effective analytical methodology for CBD analysis in pharmaceutical samples.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26154893","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T12:57:56Z","timestamp":1785761876000},"page":"4893","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Differential Pulse Voltammetric Analysis of Cannabidiol on Fluorine-Doped Tin Oxide (FTO) Electrode Interface: Quantification in Pharmaceutical Oil with Assessment of Electrode Surface Stability"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9966-846X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Romero","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n Qu\u00edmica Supramolecular Aplicada, Programa de Qu\u00edmica, Facultad de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Universidad del Atl\u00e1ntico, Carrera 30 No. 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081007, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eliana","family":"Rocha Fontalvo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n Qu\u00edmica Supramolecular Aplicada, Programa de Qu\u00edmica, Facultad de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Universidad del Atl\u00e1ntico, Carrera 30 No. 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081007, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8993-0997","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda L.","family":"Ospina-Castro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n Qu\u00edmica Supramolecular Aplicada, Programa de Qu\u00edmica, Facultad de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Universidad del Atl\u00e1ntico, Carrera 30 No. 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081007, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5181-1135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victoria A.","family":"Arana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n Ciencias, Educaci\u00f3n y Tecnolog\u00eda\u2014CETIC, Programa de Qu\u00edmica, Facultad de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Universidad del Atl\u00e1ntico, Carrera 30 No. 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081007, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carlos Mario","family":"Mel\u00e9ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n en Qu\u00edmica Org\u00e1nica y Biomedicina, Programa de Qu\u00edmica, Facultad de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Laboratorio de Investigaci\u00f3n en Biolog\u00eda Molecular, Universidad del Atl\u00e1ntico, Carrera 30 No. 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081007, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joli\u00e1n Andr\u00e9s","family":"Vargas \u00c1lzate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CUBIKAN GROUP SAS, Finca Veracruz, Vereda La Diamantina\u2014km 10 v\u00eda La Argelia, Ansermanuevo 762018, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0003-3713","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Ramos-Hern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n Qu\u00edmica Supramolecular Aplicada, Programa de Qu\u00edmica, Facultad de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Universidad del Atl\u00e1ntico, Carrera 30 No. 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081007, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2020.122188","article-title":"Stability Characteristics of Cannabidiol for the Design of Pharmacological, Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Studies","volume":"1150","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"United Nations (2022). Recommended Methods for the Identification and Analysis of Cannabis and Cannabis Products: Manual for Use by National Drug Analysis Laboratories, (ST\/NAR\/40\/REV.1)."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"131","article-title":"Drug Interactions with Cannabis Sativa: Mechanisms and Clinical Implication","volume":"36","author":"Hasanpoor","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicol. Anal. Clin."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tran, J., Vassiliadis, S., Elkins, A.C., Cogan, N.O.I., and Rochfort, S.J. (2023). Developing Prediction Models Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy to Quantify Cannabinoid Content in Cannabis Sativa. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23052607"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124754","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2023.124754","article-title":"Green Method for Recovery of Cannabinoids from Cannabis Sativa Flowers: pH-Controlled Aqueous Leaching","volume":"326","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2024.105847","article-title":"Optimization of the Solvent System Used to Prepare Cannabis Inflorescence Samples for Cannabidiol and \u03949-Tetrahydrocannabinol Quantification Using D-Optimal Design","volume":"17","author":"Monton","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691428","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/1691428","article-title":"Cannabis sativa L. and Nonpsychoactive Cannabinoids: Their Chemistry and Role against Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Cancer","volume":"2018","author":"Pellati","year":"2018","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.17159\/0379-4350\/2024\/v78a06","article-title":"Development of Physicochemical Methods for the Quantification of CBD in South African Cannabis-Based Consumer Goods","volume":"78","author":"Rylands","year":"2024","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1918","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612829666230809094304","article-title":"Development and Validation of a Simple, Fast, and Accessible HPLC-UV Method for Cannabinoids Determination in Cannabis sativa L. Extracts and Medicinal Oils","volume":"29","author":"Alonso","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2019.03.046","article-title":"Quantitative Determination of CBD and THC and Their Acid Precursors in Confiscated Cannabis Samples by HPLC-DAD","volume":"299","author":"Weinmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.4172\/2155-9872.1000349","article-title":"Classification of Cannabis Cultivars Marketed in Canada for Medical Purposes by Quantification of Cannabinoids and Terpenes Using HPLC-DAD and GC-MS","volume":"8","author":"Jin","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anal. Bioanal. Tech."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2026.129562","article-title":"Portable Voltammetric Method for the Simultaneous Determination of \u03949-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol in Alkaline Medium Using Unmodified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrodes","volume":"304","author":"Arantes","year":"2026","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jnatprod.9b01284","article-title":"The Oxidation of Phytocannabinoids to Cannabinoquinoids","volume":"83","author":"Caprioglio","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bocu, R. (2024). Extended Review Concerning the Integration of Electrochemical Biosensors into Modern IoT and Wearable Devices. Biosensors, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14050214"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100673","DOI":"10.1016\/j.flatc.2024.100673","article-title":"Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs)-Modified Screen-Printed Electrode for the Determination of Cannabidiol (CBD) in Hemp Seeds Flour","volume":"46","author":"Abid","year":"2024","journal-title":"FlatChem"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2025.118103","article-title":"Selective Electrochemical Detection of Cannabidiol (CBD) and Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) at Molecular-Imprinted Mesoporous Pt-Ir Surfaces","volume":"292","author":"Nunthakitgoson","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2024.136152","article-title":"Dual-Mode Electrochemical\/Colorimetric Capillary-Driven Microfluidic Device for Simultaneous Determination of \u03949-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol in Cannabis Flower","volume":"417","author":"Pholsiri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17306","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-68309-7","article-title":"First Voltammetric Analysis of Two Possible Anticancer Drug Candidates Using an Unmodified Glassy Carbon Electrode","volume":"14","author":"Staniec","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9539","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.2c08288","article-title":"Fabrication of Efficient Electrocatalysts for Electrochemical Water Oxidation Using Bimetallic Oxides System","volume":"8","author":"Ali","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.24425\/amm.2023.142426","article-title":"Fluorine-Doped SnO 2 Thin Films in Solar Cell Applications. Morphological, Optical and Electrical Properties","volume":"68","author":"Lisnic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Metall. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2021.134036","article-title":"Tailored Interface Stabilization of FTO Transparent Conducting Electrodes Boosting Electron and Li Ion Transport for Electrochromic Energy-Storage Devices","volume":"431","author":"Jo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400240","DOI":"10.1002\/sstr.202400240","article-title":"Nanoarchitectonics of Biofunctionalized Hydrogen-Terminated 2D-Germanane Heterostructures as Highly Sensitive Biorecognition Transducers: The Case Study of Cocaine Drug","volume":"6","author":"Lei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Small Struct."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2026.148501","article-title":"Time-Resolved Analysis of the FTO Surface Dynamics in Aqueous Solution","volume":"557","author":"Su","year":"2026","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2025.147971","article-title":"Unlocking Enhanced Electroactivity on Silanised FTO Electrodes via Tailored Surface Functionalization","volume":"548","author":"Domaros","year":"2026","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1039\/D4LF00110A","article-title":"Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrodes (SPCEs): Insights into Stability","volume":"1","author":"Grewal","year":"2024","journal-title":"RSC Appl. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijoes.2023.100347","article-title":"Electrochemical Sensitive Detection of Cannabidiol Based on Carbon Black\/ Gold Nanoparticle Composite Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode","volume":"18","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112836","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112836","article-title":"Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for the Detection of Pharmaceutical Compounds","volume":"175","author":"Qian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8588","DOI":"10.20964\/2016.10.61","article-title":"Electrochemical Deposition of ZnO Nanorod Arrays onto a ZnO Seed Layer: Nucleation and Growth Mechanism","volume":"11","author":"Romero","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2024.124316","article-title":"Development of GC\u2013MS Coupled to GC\u2013FID Method for the Quantification of Cannabis Terpenes and Terpenoids: Application to the Analysis of Five Commercial Varieties of Medicinal Cannabis","volume":"1247","author":"Cerny","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) (2022). ICH Q2(R2): Validation of Analytical Procedures, ICH."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Miller, J.N., and Miller, J.C. (2018). Significance Tests. Statistics and Chemometrics for Analytical Chemistry, Pearson Education Limited."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pazuki, D., Ghosh, R., and Howlader, M.M.R. (2023). Nanomaterials-Based Electrochemical \u03949-THC and CBD Sensors for Chronic Pain. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13030384"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2022.140928","article-title":"Resorcinol Electropolymerization Process Obtained via Electrochemical Oxidation","volume":"428","author":"Bonechi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpca.0c07702","article-title":"The Fundamental and Underrated Role of the Base Electrolyte in the Polymerization Mechanism. The Resorcinol Case Study","volume":"125","author":"Bonechi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.9b02390","article-title":"Electrochemical Sensing of Cannabinoids in Biofluids: A Noninvasive Tool for Drug Detection","volume":"5","author":"Klimuntowski","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1007\/s10800-011-0327-7","article-title":"Electropolymerization of Phenol on a Vitreous Carbon Electrode in Acidic Aqueous Solution at Different Temperatures","volume":"41","author":"Savall","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2010.04.098","article-title":"Prediction of the Electrochemical Oligomerization of P-Tert-Butyl Anisole by Analyses of the Electrolysed Solution","volume":"55","author":"Said","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L.R., and White, H.S. (2022). Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley & Sons. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3827","DOI":"10.1021\/jp2092829","article-title":"Application of Derivative Voltammetry in the Analysis of Methanol Oxidation Reaction","volume":"116","author":"Murthy","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, M.-H. (2021). Advances in Derivative Voltammetry\u2014A Search for Diagnostic Criteria of Several Electrochemical Reaction Mechanisms. Analytical Chemistry\u2014Advancement, Perspectives and Applications, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.96409"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jchemed.5c01151","article-title":"A Step-by-Step Guide for Developing and Improving an Electrochemical (Bio)Sensor: A Tutorial Introduction for Beginners","volume":"103","author":"Deffo","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Chem. Educ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1039\/D0AN01932A","article-title":"Development of an Electrochemical Sensor Based on Carbon Black for the Detection of Cannabidiol in Vegetable Extracts","volume":"146","author":"Cirrincione","year":"2021","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2020.114591","article-title":"Fast Electroanalytical Determination of Cannabidiol and Cannabinol in Aqueous Solution Using Sonogel-Carbon-PEDOT Devices","volume":"878","author":"Zanardi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deffo, G., Nde Tene, T.F., Medonbou Dongmo, L., Zambou Jiokeng, S.L., and Tonleu Temgoua, R.C. (2024). Differential Pulse and Square-Wave Voltammetry as Sensitive Methods for Electroanalysis Applications. Encyclopedia of Solid-Liquid Interfaces, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-85669-0.00040-4"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2019.02.117","article-title":"Development of an Ultra-Sensitive Electrochemical Sensor for \u03949-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and Its Metabolites Using Carbon Paper Electrodes","volume":"307","author":"Mayall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2025.147291","article-title":"Electrochemical Sensing of Cannabidiol in Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms Using Modification-Free Carbon-Based Electrodes: A Voltammetric Approach for on-Site Detection","volume":"541","author":"Lima","year":"2025","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2024.126958","article-title":"Electrochemical Sensors for Fast Classification of Different Cannabis sativa L. Samples According to Total \u03949-Tetrahydrocannabinol Content","volume":"282","author":"Monari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2024.112055","article-title":"Surfactant-Assisted Electrochemical Sensor for Phytocannabinoids","volume":"207","author":"Sleegers","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microchem. J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/15\/4893\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T13:13:29Z","timestamp":1785762809000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/15\/4893"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s26154893"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26154893","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]]}}}