{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T16:48:49Z","timestamp":1786121329751,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785888000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Cherkasy National University","award":["0125U003384"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0125U003384"]}]},{"award":["0125U003384"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0125U003384"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/009apaj69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper proposes a novel strategy for the fine-grade classification of sheet ferromagnetic materials with similar electromagnetic properties. The strategy integrates three original components: suppression of the effects of uncontrollable factors on the probe signal, reconstruction of material property profiles, and classification in a reduced-dimensional latent space. Together, these components constitute an innovative framework for effectively identifying sheet samples using the eddy current method. The strategy can be summarized as follows: interference-suppressed eddy current probe signal \u2192 GAN latent space \u2192 distance-to-class classifier \u2192 material grade. This part of the study focuses on generalizing, extending, and adapting the method previously developed by the authors for acquiring signals directly from a Taguchi-optimized probe without prior signal processing. The method is applied to the indirect measurement of material property profiles, which constitutes the first stage and a key prerequisite for implementing the proposed sample-identification concept. The results of the numerical experiments demonstrate that the optimally designed probe provides a high signal-to-noise ratio and an acceptable reduction in output-signal variations caused by uncontrollable factors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26154967","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T16:48:08Z","timestamp":1785948488000},"page":"4967","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Eddy Current Classification of Sheet Ferromagnetic Materials Based on Material Property Profiles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0304-372X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Volodymyr Ya.","family":"Halchenko","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Instrumentation, Mechatronics and Computerized Technologies, Cherkasy State Technological University, 460 Shevchenko Blvd., 18006 Cherkasy, Ukraine"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruslana","family":"Trembovetska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Instrumentation, Mechatronics and Computerized Technologies, Cherkasy State Technological University, 460 Shevchenko Blvd., 18006 Cherkasy, Ukraine"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Volodymyr","family":"Tychkov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Instrumentation, Mechatronics and Computerized Technologies, Cherkasy State Technological University, 460 Shevchenko Blvd., 18006 Cherkasy, Ukraine"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7624-7072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Viacheslav","family":"Kovtun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Control Systems, Faculty of Intelligent Information Technologies and Automation, Vinnytsia National Technical University, Khmelnitske Shose Str., 95, 21000 Vinnytsia, Ukraine"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oles","family":"Stankevych","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Instrumentation, Mechatronics and Computerized Technologies, Cherkasy State Technological University, 460 Shevchenko Blvd., 18006 Cherkasy, Ukraine"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"230","article-title":"Electromagnetic testing","volume":"Volume 5","author":"Udpa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nondestructive Testing Handbook"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Q., Wang, R., Hu, J., Jiao, H., Zhang, C., Hou, Z., Duan, C., Long, X., and Lv, L. (2026). Development of Pulsed Eddy Current Nondestructive Testing: A Review. Sensors, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/s26082289"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, X., Xu, C., Zhang, X., and Jiang, W. (2026). A Review of Eddy Current In-Line Inspection Technology for Oil and Gas Pipelines. Processes, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr14020247"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2024.103724","article-title":"Machine learning based eddy current testing: A review","volume":"25","author":"Munir","year":"2025","journal-title":"Results Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2024.12.033","article-title":"Eddy current testing and monitoring in metal additive manufacturing: A review","volume":"134","author":"Monu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machado, M.A. (2024). Eddy Currents Probe Design for NDT Applications: A Review. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24175819"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2023.112724","article-title":"Identification and classification of bearing steel bars based on low-frequency eddy current detection method","volume":"213","author":"Qian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.05.101","article-title":"Novel austenitic steel ageing classification method using eddy current testing and a support vector machine","volume":"127","author":"Arenas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, G.R., and Han, X. (2003). Computational Inverse Techniques in Nondestructive Evaluation, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203494486"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.494-495.993","article-title":"Research and design of a steel material sorting instrument based on Eddy current","volume":"494","author":"Lan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arnold, W., Goebbels, K., and Kumar, A. (2023). Non-Destructive Materials Characterization and Evaluation, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-66489-6"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106005","DOI":"10.1088\/1402-4896\/ad732b","article-title":"Steel grades classification and heating defects detection of bearing steel bars via pulse eddy current testing","volume":"99","author":"Qian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phys. Scr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166103","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/ae5df3","article-title":"Dynamic classification of bearing steel based on pulsed eddy current","volume":"37","author":"Qian","year":"2026","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams, K.C., Mallaburn, M.J., Gagola, M., O\u2019Toole, M.D., Jones, R., and Peyton, A.J. (2023). Classification of shredded aluminium scrap metal using magnetic induction spectroscopy. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23187837"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Toole, M.D., Karimian, N., and Peyton, A.J. (2017). Fast classification of non-magnetic metal targets using eddy-current based impedance spectroscopy. 2017 IEEE SENSORS, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2017.8234219"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"3477","article-title":"Classification of nonferrous metals using magnetic induction spectroscopy","volume":"14","author":"Karimian","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.24425\/mms.2025.152781","article-title":"Indirect simultaneous eddy-current measurements of subsurface profiles of electrophysical properties of planar objects using apriori knowledge about them","volume":"32","author":"Halchenko","year":"2025","journal-title":"Metrol. Meas. Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.24425\/aee.2024.148864","article-title":"Surrogate methods for determining profiles of material properties of planar test objects with accumulation of apriori information about them","volume":"73","author":"Halchenko","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"61","article-title":"Reconstruction of electrophysical parameter distribution during eddy current measurements of structural features of planar metal objects","volume":"61","author":"Halchenko","year":"2024","journal-title":"Latv. J. Phys. Tech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aboura, A., Abdou, A., Bouchala, T., Boulham, I.A., Abdelhadi, B., Morakchi, M.R., Sadeq, A.M., and Khatib, A.E. (2026). Enhancing detection and prediction of random defects in conductive materials using eddy current sensor and RBF networks. Meas. Control, 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1177\/00202940261421082"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.20998\/2074-272X.2025.1.06","article-title":"Computer-economical optimization method for solving inverse problems of determining electrophysical properties of objects in eddy current structroscopy","volume":"1","author":"Halchenko","year":"2025","journal-title":"Electr. Eng. Electromech."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halchenko, V.Y., Trembovetska, R., Tychkov, V., Kovtun, V., and Tychkova, N. (2025). Application of Reduced Order Surrogate Models in Compatible Determination of Material Properties Profiles by Eddy Current Method. Electronics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics14010212"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2025.119218","article-title":"Robust parameter design of eddy current meters for the electrical conductivity of materials and products of considerable thickness","volume":"258","author":"Halchenko","year":"2025","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14769","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-42808-1","article-title":"Reducing noise levels in eddy current measurements using self-differential probes of the substrate conductivity under a layer of conductive coating in moved objects","volume":"16","author":"Halchenko","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-025-01295-6","article-title":"Robust Parameter Design of Eddy Current Measuring Devices for Magnetic Permeability of a Moving Strip of Ferromagnetic Rolled Metal","volume":"45","author":"Halchenko","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halchenko, V.Y., Trembovetska, R., Tychkov, V., and Kovtun, V. (2026). Eddy current measurements of dielectric coating thickness on a weakly magnetic substrate within the medium frequency range. PLoS ONE, 21.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0340200"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114084","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2022.114084","article-title":"Eddy current convergence probes with self-differential and self-nulling characteristics for detecting cracks in conductive materials","volume":"349","author":"Kasai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Le, Q.T. (2024). Development of Eddy Current Probes Based on Various Core Shapes and Materials. [Doctoral Dissertation, The Yokohama National University]."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.2298\/FUEE1701027Z","article-title":"Calculation model for the induced voltage in rectangular coils above conductive plates","volume":"30","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Facta Univ. Ser. Electron. Energ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., and Ida, N. (2017). Analytical calculation of induced voltages of uniform eddy current probes above a moving conductor. International Conference on Sensing and Imaging, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-91659-0_13"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Krishnaiah, K., and Shahabudeen, P. (2012). Applied Design of Experiments and Taguchi Methods, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1007\/s44199-024-00093-9","article-title":"The versatility of the Taguchi method: Optimizing experiments across diverse disciplines","volume":"23","author":"Hisam","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Stat. Theory Appl."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"15","article-title":"A product development using the robust design concept and the Taguchi method","volume":"41","author":"Neagu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Dunarea DE Jos Univ. Galati"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verma, R., Kumar, D., Kobayashi, K., and Alam, S. (2023). Reliability-based robust design optimization method for engineering systems with uncertainty quantification. Handbook of Smart Energy Systems, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-72322-4_206-1"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.22271\/maths.2023.v8.i6a.1406","article-title":"Optimize the Taguchi method, the signal-to-noise ratio, and the sensitivity","volume":"8","author":"Rashid","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Stat. Appl. Math."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Rigdon, S.E., Pan, R., Montgomery, D.C., and Freeman, L. (2022). Design of Experiments for Reliability Achievement, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Antony, J. (2023). Design of Experiments for Engineers and Scientists, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"2408","article-title":"Analysis of variance: The fundamental concepts and application with R","volume":"9","author":"Adeniran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Math. Comput. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Moore, K., Mowers, R., Harbur, M.L., Merrick, L., Mahama, A.A., and Suza, W. (2023). The analysis of variance (ANOVA). Quantitative Methods for Plant Breeding, Iowa State University Digital Press."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dugard, P., Todman, J., and Staines, H. (2022). Analysis of variance (ANOVA). Approaching Multivariate Analysis, Routledge. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003343097"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2026, July 01). Steels HSLA. ASM Handbook, Volume 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High Performance Alloys Section: Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels. Available online: https:\/\/www.asremavad.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/29-High-Strength-Structural-and-High-Strength-Low-Alloy-Steels.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2026, July 01). The Engineering ToolBox. Resources, Tools and Basic Information for Engineering and Design of Technical Applications. Permeability. Available online: https:\/\/www.engineeringtoolbox.com\/permeability-d_1923.html."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2026, July 01). Real Statistics Using Excel. Available online: https:\/\/real-statistics.com\/design-of-experiments\/taguchi-design-of-experiments\/5-level-taguchi-designs\/."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2026, July 01). Table of Taguchi Designs (Orthogonal Arrays). Available online: https:\/\/www.york.ac.uk\/depts\/maths\/tables\/taguchi_table.htm."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2026, July 01). Catalogue of Taguchi Designs. Available online: https:\/\/support.minitab.com\/en-us\/minitab\/help-and-how-to\/statistical-modeling\/doe\/supporting-topics\/taguchi-designs\/catalogue-of-taguchi-designs\/."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/15\/4967\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T04:17:16Z","timestamp":1786076236000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/15\/4967"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s26154967"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26154967","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]]}}}